Tropical East Asia Research Articles

Ecology and distribution of the Southeast Asian invasive liana Kudzu, Pueraria lobata (Fabaceae), in Southern Switzerland

Pueraria lobata, Kudzu, is a perennial liana native in temperate to tropical East Asia. Introduced mainly as an ornamental plant into many (sub)tropical regions, and as a forage crop in the South‐Eastern USA, it has spread vegetatively into adjacent forests and grasslands and has also been dispersed with garden waste. The objectives of this paper are: (i) to assess whether the ecology of P. lobata in Southern Switzerland is similar to that in the South‐Eastern USA, where it causes great damage; (ii) to predict its further spread in Southern Switzerland. In Switzerland it already occurs in 32 sites covering 16 200 m2; the shoots grow ≤ 26 cm per day and ≤ 11 m per year, forming ≤ 2 m thick mats. P. lobata infested sites contain about half as many plant species as similar sites without it. This paper shows that the ecology of P. lobata in Southern Switzerland is similar to that described for the USA. The broad climatic requirements of the species suggest that it could establish in many regions of Southern and Central Europe. However, it is not expected to spread on a large scale in Switzerland because there appears to be no establishment from seed and because its stands are always near settlements and thus mostly controlled.

Isolation and identification of a phytotoxic substance from the emergent macrophyte Centrostachys aquatica.

BackgroundCentrostachys aquatica is a perennial emergent macrophyte in marshy places and in rivers. The species was recorded in Senegal and Nigeria, but widespread in tropical Africa, and South and East Asia. Aqueous methanol extracts C. aquatica was found to be toxic to several plant species. However, no phytotoxic substance has been reported in this species. Therefore, we investigated phytotoxic activity and searched for phytotoxic substances with allelopathic activity in C. aquatica.ResultsAn aqueous methanol extract of C. aquatica inhibited the growth of roots and hypocotyls of cress (Lepidium sativum). The extract was then purified by several chromatographic runs and a phytotoxic substance with allelopathic activity was isolated and identified by spectral analysis as loliolide. Loliolide inhibited cress root and hypocotyl growth at concentrations greater than 0.03 μM. The concentrations required for 50% growth inhibition of cress roots and hypocotyls was 0.18 and 0.15 μM, respectively.ConclusionThese results suggest that loliolide is a phytotoxic substance and may contribute to the allelopathic effect caused by C. aquatica.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s40529-014-0059-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The phylogeography of red and yellow coppersmith barbets (Aves: Megalaima haemacephala)

Understanding the evolution of color in birds is important because it is used for both inter- and intra-specific communication and is often linked to other important traits including life history, behavior, immunology and mate choice. The coppersmith barbet (Megalaima haemacephala) is widely distributed across southern Asia and many islands of the Sunda shelf and the Philippines. It occurs in two well-differentiated and completely allopatric color morphs, a red- and a yellow-headed form. We constructed a phylogeny of coppersmith barbets from both color morphs and from across their range using sequences from two mitochondrial and one nuclear loci. Strong geographical patterns were found, in which India and Sri Lanka, the Philippines and mainland tropical east Asia (TE Asia), and the islands on the Sunda shelf (Sundaland) each formed a divergent group. The red birds formed two clades within the diversity of yellow animals. Major clades were dated using a molecular clock calibrated on a larger phylogeny. The phylogeographic patterns suggest that the species likely originated in TE Asia/ Sundaland and then colonized the Philippines from the south in the mid-Pleistocene, via a now extinct population on Borneo. More recently, coppersmith barbets colonized India and Sri Lanka, also from TE Asia/ Sundaland. Coppersmith barbets were also likely distributed in the past on the Malay Peninsula, but went extinct there too. The population that now inhabits this region derives from a natural recolonization of yellow morph birds about 80 years ago. The red morph evolved at least twice independently from the yellow morph in the late Pleistocene, suggesting that this change does not require very many mutational steps, and thus can arise repeatedly.

Lineage diversification and hybridization in the Cayratia japonica–Cayratia tenuifolia species complex

The Cayratia japonica–Cayratia tenuifolia species complex (Vitaceae) is distributed from temperate to tropical East Asia, Southeast Asia, India, and Australia. The spatiotemporal diversification history of this complex was assessed through phylogenetic and biogeographic analyses. Maximum parsimony, neighbor-joining, and maximum likelihood methods were used to analyze sequences of one nuclear (AS1) and two plastid regions (trnL-F and trnC-petN). Bayesian dating analysis was conducted to estimate the divergence times of clades. The likelihood method LAGRANGE was used to infer ancestral areas. The Asian C. japonica and C. tenuifolia should be treated as an unresolved complex, and Australian C. japonica is distinct from the Asian C. japonica–C. tenuifolia species complex and should be treated as separate taxa. The Asian C. japonica–C. tenuifolia species complex was estimated to have diverged from its closest relatives during the Late Eocene (35.1 million years ago [Ma], 95% highest posterior densities [HPD]=23.3–47.3Ma) and most likely first diverged in mid-continental Asia. This complex was first divided into a northern clade and a southern clade during the middle Oligocene (27.3Ma; 95% HPD=17.4–38.1Ma), which is consistent with a large southeastward extrusion of the Indochina region relative to South China along the Red River. Each of the northern and southern clades then further diverged into multiple subclades through a series of dispersal and divergence events following significant geological and climatic changes in East and Southeast Asia during the Miocene. Multiple inter-lineage hybridizations among four lineages were inferred to have occurred following this diversification process, which caused some Asian lineages to be morphologically cryptic.

Invasive apple snails (Pomacea canaliculata) are predators of amphibians in South China

Invasive species are one of the most serious threats to amphibian populations. We investigated the effects of two invasive (Pomacea canaliculata and Physella acuta) and one native (Radix sp.) snail species on five species of wetland-breeding frogs in Hong Kong. We quantified embryonic survivorship and determined whether particular attributes of amphibian egg masses influenced consumption by snails. P. canaliculata preyed on four of the species, consuming >90 % of eggs of Microhyla fissipes and Fejervarya limnocharis, nearly 70 % of eggs of Kaloula pulchra, approximately 40 % of eggs of Duttaphrynus melanostictus, but no eggs of Polypedates megacephalus. P. acuta and Radix sp. consumed only the eggs of K. pulchra, but those eggs were probably non-viable. This study shows that P. canaliculata, which occurs at high densities in tropical East Asia, may be an important predator of amphibian eggs. Future research should evaluate their effects on amphibian populations, community structure, and food web dynamics.

Shading Mediates the Interaction Between an Amphibian and a Predatory Fly

Abiotic factors have been demonstrated to mediate predator–prey interactions in aquatic and terrestrial communities. For amphibians changes in pH, pollutants, temperature, ultraviolet-B, and moisture levels can alter behavioral, developmental, and physiological aspects of predator–prey relationships resulting in reduced survivorship. Some rhacophorid frogs deposit eggs as foam nests on vegetation overhanging water, presumably as an adaptive response to the risk of egg predation by aquatic animals. Terrestrial insects are known to feed on frog embryos in foam nests, and anecdotal observations in tropical East Asia and Southeast Asia suggested that predation of frog embryos by dipteran fly larvae may be higher in unshaded areas. To understand the role that shading may play in this relationship, I compared survival of embryos of the Brown Tree Frog (Polypedates megacephalus) infested by larvae of a calliphorid fly (Phumosia coomani) in shaded and unshaded conditions in a controlled field study. When foam nests were infested by flies, survival to hatching was more than 15 times higher in shaded than in unshaded nests. Less than 1% of frog embryos survived to hatching in unshaded, infested foam nests which contained twice as many fly larvae as shaded nests. These results combine to suggest that both colonization and predation by flies are higher in unshaded foam nests. The mechanism triggering increased colonization of unshaded nests is unclear, but warmer temperatures on the surfaces of unshaded foam nests may decrease hatching time for fly eggs, permitting fly larvae to move inside the foam nest more quickly and begin feeding on amphibian embryos. Although the risk of predation by calliphorid flies is higher for P. megacephalus in unshaded areas, the benefits of developing in warmer conditions, including faster embryonic and larval development and larger size at metamorphosis, may offset this risk.

Pleistocene speciation with and without gene flow in Euphaea damselflies of subtropical and tropical East Asian islands

Climatic oscillations during the Pleistocene period could have had a profound impact on the origin of tropical species by the alternation of allopatric isolation and interpopulation gene flow cycles. However, whether tropical speciation involves strictly allopatric isolation, or proceeds in the face of homogenizing gene flow, is relatively unclear. Here, we investigated geographical modes of speciation in four closely related Euphaea damselfly species endemic to the subtropical and tropical East Asian islands using coalescent analyses of a multilocus data set. The reconstructed phylogenies demonstrated distinct species status for each of the four species and the existence of two sister species pairs, Euphaea formosa/E. yayeyamana and E. decorata/E. ornata. The species divergence time of the sibling Euphaea damselflies dates back to within the last one Mya of the Middle to Lower Pleistocene. The speciation between the populous E. formosa of Taiwan and the less numerous E. yayeyamana of the Yaeyama islands occurred despite significant bidirectional, asymmetric gene flow, which is strongly inconsistent with a strictly allopatric model. In contrast, speciation of the approximately equal-sized populations of E. decorata of the southeast Asian mainland and E. ornata of Hainan is inferred to have involved allopatric divergence without gene flow. Our findings suggest that differential selection of natural or sexual environments is a prominent driver of species divergence in subtropical E. formosa and E. yayeyamana; whereas for tropical E. decorata and E. ornata at lower latitudes, allopatric isolation may well be a pivotal promoter of species formation.

Boreal summer continental monsoon rainfall and hydroclimate anomalies associated with the Asian-Pacific Oscillation

With the twentieth century analysis data (1901–2002) for atmospheric circulation, precipitation, Palmer drought severity index, and sea surface temperature (SST), we show that the Asian-Pacific Oscillation (APO) during boreal summer is a major mode of the earth climate variation linking to global atmospheric circulation and hydroclimate anomalies, especially the Northern Hemisphere (NH) summer land monsoon. Associated with a positive APO phase are the warm troposphere over the Eurasian land and the relatively cool troposphere over the North Pacific, the North Atlantic, and the Indian Ocean. Such an amplified land–ocean thermal contrast between the Eurasian land and its adjacent oceans signifies a stronger than normal NH summer monsoon, with the strengthened southerly or southwesterly monsoon prevailing over tropical Africa, South Asia, and East Asia. A positive APO implies an enhanced summer monsoon rainfall over all major NH land monsoon regions: West Africa, South Asia, East Asia, and Mexico. Thus, APO is a sensible measure of the NH land monsoon rainfall intensity. Meanwhile, reduced precipitation appears over the arid and semiarid regions of northern Africa, the Middle East, and West Asia, manifesting the monsoon-desert coupling. On the other hand, surrounded by the cool troposphere over the North Pacific and North Atlantic, the extratropical North America has weakened low-level continental low and upper-level ridge, hence a deficient summer rainfall. Corresponding to a high APO index, the African and South Asian monsoon regions are wet and cool, the East Asian monsoon region is wet and hot, and the extratropical North America is dry and hot. Wet and dry climates correspond to wet and dry soil conditions, respectively. The APO is also associated with significant variations of SST in the entire Pacific and the extratropical North Atlantic during boreal summer, which resembles the Interdecadal Pacific Oscillation in SST. Of note is that the Pacific SST anomalies are not present throughout the year, rather, mainly occur in late spring, peak at late summer, and are nearly absent during boreal winter. The season-dependent APO–SST relationship and the origin of the APO remain elusive.

Permian Coal Forest offers a glimpse of late Paleozoic ecology

Little evokes a sense of wonder about the past like moments frozen in time: the contorted bodies of Pompeii's horrified citizens fixed in their final poses, the footprints of an ancient hominin family cemented on an African savanna, the tracks of a Jurassic predator closing in on unsuspecting prey along a muddy riverbank, or tree stumps from an ancient Carboniferous rainforest buried in place by a sudden deluge (Fig. 1). These instances provide us with poignant snapshots of deep time, and just like a photograph, they also may capture some of its dynamism. In PNAS, the work by Wang et al. (1) reconstructs the vegetation of an ∼300 million-year-old early Permian-aged mire that was buried and killed by a volcanic ashfall, one of a rare but increasing number of occurrences that geologists term T0 deposits (2). The study represents a high-resolution view of a Permian-aged ‘Coal Forest’, so-called because it accumulated atop peat (now coal), an extinct ecosystem that persisted in tropical East Asia long after its better-known Pennsylvanian-aged counterparts had all but dried up in Europe and North America (1). By using a quantitative analysis of plant fossils preserved in tuff above the coal seam, the work by Wang et al. (1) provides a 3D reconstruction of the mire vegetation before the eruption, from which patterns of heterogeneity and ecological gradients emerge. Such T0 deposits allow paleoecologists to examine the past in much the same way neoecologists appraise modern environments, and to ask questions about the conformity of observed patterns with various aspects of ecological theory.

Ecomorphology, differentiated habitat use, and nocturnal activities of Rhinolophus and Hipposideros species in East Asian tropical forests

We investigated the wing morphology and foraging distributions of sympatric Rhinolophus and Hipposideros species by acoustic sampling, measuring wing parameters, and observing bats in different settings of tropical East Asian forests, to evaluate their flexibility in habitat use and edge sensitivity. R. formosae and H. terasensis were more abundant at edges/in open habitats and shared the highest overlap, with R. formosae displaying the greatest breadth in habitat use, whereas R. monoceros had a higher abundance and feeding efficiency in forest interiors with a continuous canopy. H. terasensis was significantly larger and had higher wing loading and aspect ratio than R. formosae and R. monoceros, while R. formosae had higher wing loading but a lower aspect ratio than the smaller-sized R. monoceros. Shrubs and herbs were higher at sites where bats were captured than at those without bat captures, and R. monoceros and R. formosae were associated with greater canopy and ground coverage, respectively. R. monoceros always foraged while flying at lower heights close to the herb/shrub layers, while H. terasensis and R. formosae used perching to different extents, with R. formosae preferably using fly-catching techniques and appearing farther from the path in open forests rather than in forest interiors. Our results indicate that differences in wing parameters account for the different degrees of flexibility in habitat use, yet the deviations of call frequency from the expected values in R. formosae and H. terasensis suggest additional adaptations accounting for their flexibility in exploring habitats.

Temporally structured metapopulation dynamics and persistence of influenza A H3N2 virus in humans

Populations of seasonal influenza virus experience strong annual bottlenecks that pose a considerable extinction risk. It has been suggested that an influenza source population located in tropical Southeast or East Asia seeds annual temperate epidemics. Here we investigate the seasonal dynamics and migration patterns of influenza A H3N2 virus by analysis of virus samples obtained from 2003 to 2006 from Australia, Europe, Japan, New York, New Zealand, Southeast Asia, and newly sequenced viruses from Hong Kong. In contrast to annual temperate epidemics, relatively low levels of relative genetic diversity and no seasonal fluctuations characterized virus populations in tropical Southeast Asia and Hong Kong. Bayesian phylogeographic analysis using discrete temporal and spatial characters reveal high rates of viral migration between urban centers tested. Although the virus population that migrated between Southeast Asia and Hong Kong persisted through time, this was dependent on virus input from temperate regions and these tropical regions did not maintain a source for annual H3N2 influenza epidemics. We further show that multiple lineages may seed annual influenza epidemics, and that each region may function as a potential source population. We therefore propose that the global persistence of H3N2 influenza A virus is the result of a migrating metapopulation in which multiple different localities may seed seasonal epidemics in temperate regions in a given year. Such complex global migration dynamics may confound control efforts and contribute to the emergence and spread of antigenic variants and drug-resistant viruses.

Technical Application Process for Eco-Friendly Cotton by Antimicrobial

Apparel textiles in service will adsorb metabolism perspiration from human body, thus prompting microbial propagation and leading to fiber degradation and splash. More seriously, this microbe gives rise to allergy and red swelling on human skin, which makes our body unwell. Staphylococcus aureus is one of common bacteria on human skin, but its excessive breeding on skin will bring red swelling and inflammation. In order to avoid this situation happening, we add antibacterial ingredients in textiles which were not harmful to human and cannot have negative effect on human. And this study aims at seeking for anti-staphylococcus aureus plants, trying to add ingredients from plants in textiles to discuss their antimicrobial change and investigating whether to be potential in textiles application. Phyllanthus Urinaria Linn (PUL) is common in tropical East Asia and can suppress the growth of bacteria regarding staphylococcus aureus, typhoid bacillus, pseudomonas aeruginosa etc. It is shown that when PUL was treated at 60°C for 6 hours in 300 ml 95 % ethyl alcohols, extract rate was up to 12.53 %. And qualitative antimicrobial was effective between 12g/100ml and 0.09375g/100ml PUL extract liquor. And the fabric qualitative antimicrobial was obviously valid when extract concentration was above 0.75g/100 ml. Therefore, cotton treated by 1.5g/100ml PUL extract liquor had prominent antimicrobial effect.

Asian Tapirs Are No Elephants When It Comes To Seed Dispersal

ABSTRACTThe elimination of the largest herbivores (elephants and rhinoceroses) from many forests in tropical East Asia may have severe consequences for plant species that depend on them for seed dispersal. We assessed the capacity of Malayan tapirs Tapirus indicus—the next largest nonruminant herbivore in the region—as a substitute for the lost megafauna in this role by studying their ability to disperse the seeds of nine fleshy‐fruited plants with seeds 5–97 mm in length. We combined information from feeding trials, germination tests, and field telemetry to assess the effect of tapir consumption on seed viability and to estimate how far the seeds would be dispersed. The tapirs (N=8) ingested few seeds. Seed survival through gut passage was moderately high for small‐seeded plants (e.g., 36.9% for Dillenia indica) but very low for medium‐ (e.g., 7.6% for Tamarindus indica) and large‐seeded (e.g., 2.8% for Artocarpus integer) plants. Mean seed gut passage times were long (63–236 h) and only the smallest seeds germinated afterwards. Using movement data from four wild tapirs in Peninsular Malaysia we estimated mean dispersal distances of 917–1287 m (range=22–3289 m) for small‐seeded plants. Malayan tapirs effectively dispersed small‐seeded plants but acted as seed predators for the large‐seeded plants included in our study, suggesting that they cannot replace larger herbivores in seed dispersal. With the absence of elephants and rhinos many megafaunal‐syndrome plants in tropical East Asia are expected to face severe dispersal limitation problems.

TRMM 위성의 강수레이더에서 관측된 동아시아 여름 강수의 특성

The characteristics and vertical structure of the rainfall are examined in terms of rain types using TRMM (Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission) PR (Precipitation Radar) data during the JJA period of 2002-2006 over three different regions; midlatitude region around the Korean Peninsula (EA1), subtropical East Asia (EA2), and tropical East Asia (EA3). The convective rain fraction in the EA1 region is 12.2%, which is smaller by 6% than those in the EA2 and EA3 regions. EA1 shows less frequent convective rain events, which are about 0.5 times as many as those in EA3. EA1 produces the mean convective rain rate of 10.4 mm/h that is about 40% larger than EA2 and EA3 while all regions have similar mean stratiform rain rate. The relationships between storm height and rain rate indicate that the rain rate is proportional to the storm height. Based on the vertical structure of radar reflectivity, EA1 produces deeper and stronger convective clouds with higher rain rate compared to the other regions. In EA3, radar reflectivity increases distinctly toward the land surface at altitude below 5 km, indicating more dominant coalescence-collision processes than the other regions. Furthermore, the bright band of stratiform rain clouds in EA3 is very distinct. In convective rain clouds, the first EOFs of radar reflectivity profiles are similar among the three regions, while the second EOFs are slightly different. The larger variability exists at upper layers for EA1 while it exits at lower levels for EA3.

Spatiotemporal Variation in Cicada Diversity and Distribution, and Tree Use by Exuviating Nymphs, in East Asian Tropical Reef-Karst Forests and Forestry Plantations

Abstract Spatiotemporal variation in the species composition, relative abundance, and plant use by cicada nymphs were studied among continuous and fragmented forests and human-modified forestry plantations upon an uplifted reef-karst substrate in tropical East Asia. Nymphal emergence was concentrated in the rainy season but tended to begin earlier, end later, or both, on plantations. Species abundances fluctuated over time and among the types of forests, with greater variation in plantations and fragmented forests. Seven cicada species were present, but the overall similarity in species composition was low among the forest types. Higher mean numbers of species and mean abundances occurred on plantations than in fragmented and continuous forests, but the species heterogeneity was higher in continuous forests and lowest on plantations. Exuviae were found at various heights that were correlated positively with the abundance of exuviae and negatively with the diameter at breast height of trees, whereas coefficients of variation in the height distribution among trees were not correlated with the abundance of exuviae. The plant-use breadth was widest in the cicadas Chremistica ochracea (Walker) and narrowest in Cryptotympana takasagona. Kato, Phtypleura takasagona Matsumura, and Euterpnosia koshunensis Kato, with the other species intermediate, corresponding with their relative abundance. Among-species overlap was generally higher in the continuous forests but declined in forest fragments and plantations. Our results indicated that fragmenting tropical primary forests and creating plantations may generate higher richness and abundance of annual cicadas, but risk the loss of rare or endemic species that show a greater preference for tree species of the primary forests.

Seed Dispersal Distances and Plant Migration Potential in Tropical East Asia

ABSTRACTMost predictions of vegetation responses to anthropogenic climate change over the next 100 yr are based on plant physiological tolerances and do not account for the ability of plant species to migrate over the distances required in the time available, or the impact of habitat fragmentation on this ability. This review assesses the maximum routine dispersal distances achievable in tropical East Asia and their vulnerability to human impacts. Estimates for various plant–vector combinations range from < 10 m, for species dispersed by ants or mechanical means, to > 10 km for some species dispersed by wind (tiny seeds), water, fruit pigeons, large fruit bats (tiny seeds), elephants, rhinoceroses, and people. Most plant species probably have maximum dispersal distances in the 100–1000 m range, but the widespread, canopy‐dominant Dipterocarpaceae and Fagaceae are normally dispersed < 100 m. Large fruit bats and fruit pigeons are particularly important for long‐distance dispersal in fragmented landscapes and should be protected from hunting. The maximum seed dispersal distances estimated in this study are potentially sufficient for many plant species to track temperature changes in steep topography, but are far too small for a significant role in mitigating climate change impacts in the lowlands, where temperature and rainfall gradients are much more shallow.

Invasive aliens on tropical East Asian islands

Tropical East Asia (TEA) has numerous islands, both continental and oceanic. This study uses information on invasive aliens in terrestrial habitats on these islands to test the generality of the continental-oceanic contrast in invasibility, assess the conservation impacts of invasive species, and suggest ways to mitigate these. The continental islands of Hong Kong and Singapore are worst-case scenarios for continental invasibility and alien species often dominate in chronically disturbed sites, but very few have successfully invaded closed forests, with the exception of birds in Hong Kong. On other, less densely populated, continental islands, closed-canopy forests appear to resist invasions by all taxa, with few known exceptions. Forests on oceanic islands isolated by 1000 km from the nearest continent, have a native biota of largely tropical East Asian origin and are suffering from alien forest invasions across the taxonomic spectrum. These patterns of invasibility are consistent with the idea that alien invasion is facilitated by the absence of native species in the same functional group. Alien invasives are not yet a major conservation problem in TEA, except on remote islands, but their dominance on disturbed sites may slow or prevent recovery of native biodiversity. Strict quarantine is impractical in TEA, although some major introduction routes could be blocked. Management efforts should focus on early recognition and immediate control of potential problem species.

Ecological Characteristics of the Skink, Mabuya Longicaudata, on a Tropical East Asian Island

I describe morphological and ecological characteristics including habitat use, diet, and male and female reproductive cycles of Mabuya longicaudata, an oviparous lizard inhabiting a tropical island off the coast of Taiwan. Nearly 50% (n = 76) of individuals observed were in holes in a concrete wall that had higher temperatures than other microhabitats. The diet consisted mostly of orthopterans (31.1%), coleopterans (20.5%), and hemipterans (15.2%). Four prey categories, Tettigoniidae, crickets, Scarabaeidae, and Cicadellidae, dominated the diet, and some lizards' stomachs contained plant food, including seeds, leaves, and fruit. The mean snout-vent length (SVL) of adult males (n = 71) was 118.7 mm (range 100.9–130.4), and that of females (n = 82) was 113.5 mm (range 98.1–126.8). Females exhibited a spring vitellogenic period with parturition occurring from February to August. The onset of vitellogenesis showed a negative correlation with the mass of the female fat bodies. Females produced one to 13 eggs per clutch, and clutch size was positively correlated with SVL. Two clutches were suggested during a single year in some individuals. Testis mass showed cyclical changes with a maximum in the breeding months from January to July. Male fat bodies exhibited the lowest mass from January to June, coincident with the period of reproductive activity. Clutch size in other Mabuya species are compared with those in M. longicaudata.

Isoquinoline alkaloids from Artabotrys brachypetalus

The genus Artabotrys contains more than 100 species throughout tropical Africa and East Asia. A. brachypetalus Benth. (Annonaceae) is a small tree, shrub or liane, described firstly as a plant located only in Zimbabwe but also known to occur in Zambia (Baker, 1911). Material was collected near Bulawayo (Zimbabwe) in February 1996 and identified by S. Mavi. A voucher specimen (2724.000) has been deposited in the National Herbarium of Zimbabwe (SRGH) in Harare.

<strong>Annotated checklist of Hongkong Lichens</strong>

An annotated checklist of the lichens of Hong Kong, based on all available literature reports and specimens, including those recently collected by the authors, is presented. In total, 261 species are reported, of which 176 are new records for Hong Kong, 132 of which are new for China, 43 are new for East Asia, and 27 are new for Asia. The lichen vegetation is mainly tropical, as is shown by the distribution patterns of the identified species: 53 species are cosmopolitan, 40 northern temperate, 122 pantropical, 17 paleotropical and 29 endemic to tropical East Asia. With regard to substrata, 129 species are corticolous, 148 saxicolous, 17 foliicolous and 19 terricolous. Four species are newly described: Anisomeridium conorostratum Aptroot, A. hydei Aptroot, Caloplaca pulicarioides Aptroot and Placidiopsis poronioides Aptroot. The flora is rather poor in species; for example, no Caliciales have been found. In the past, the numbers of species of several groups such as the Graphidaceae, Heterodermia and Xanthoparmelia have been overestimated, whereas few pyrenocarps have been reported. The flora of wet granitic outcrops is surprisingly well developed in Hong Kong. Although not a single Peltula species was reported before, six species were identified, including one that was previously only known from Africa. In addition, several other cyanophilic genera are present, such as Euopsis, Psorotichia, Pyrenopsis and, most unexpectedly, Vestergrenopsis, each with one species. A comparison between old and recent records shows that many Lobarion species are now extinct. The drastic decline of species of the Lobarion vegetation indicates that air pollution and other habitat disturbances, mainly deforestation, to which these species are very sensitive, are seriously threatening the lichen biodiversity of Hong Kong.