R Complex Research Articles

Cocaine- and Amphetamine-Regulated Transcript Peptide in the Central Nervous System of the Gecko, Hemidactylus leschenaultii: Molecular Characterization, Neuroanatomical Organization, and Regulation by Neuropeptide Y.

Neuropeptide cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART) is widely expressed in the brains of teleosts, amphibians, birds, and mammals and has emerged as a conserved regulator of energy balance across these vertebrate phyla. However, as yet, there is no information on CART in the reptilian brain. We characterized the cDNA encoding CART and mapped CART-containing elements in the brain of gecko, Hemidactylus leschenaultii (hl) using a specific anti-CART antiserum. We report a 683-bp hlcart transcript containing a 336-bp open reading frame, which encodes a putative 111-amino acid hl-preproCART. The 89-amino acid hl-proCART generated from hl-preproCART produced two putative bioactive hl-CART-peptides. These bioactive CART-peptides were >93% similar with those in rats/humans. Although reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) detected hlcart-transcript in the brain, CART-containing neurons/fibers were widely distributed in the telencephalon, diencephalon, mesencephalon, rhombencephalon, spinal cord, and retina. The mitral cells in olfactory bulb, neurons in the paraventricular, periventricular, arcuate (Arc), Edinger-Westphal, and brainstem nuclei were intensely CART-positive. In view of antagonistic roles of neuropeptide Y (NPY) and CART in energy balance in the framework of mammalian hypothalamus, we probed CART-NPY interaction in the hypothalamus of H. leschenaultii. Double immunofluorescence showed a dense NPY-innervation of Arc CART neurons. Ex vivo hypothalamic slices treated with NPY/NPY-Y1-receptor agonist significantly reduced hlcart-mRNA levels in the Arc-containing tissues and CART-ir in the dorsal-Arc. However, CART-ir in ventral-Arc was unaffected. NPY via Y1-receptors may regulate energy balance by inhibiting dArc CART neurons. This study on CART in a reptilian brain fills the current void in literature and underscores the conserved feature of the neuropeptide across the entire vertebrate phyla.

Model Emotional Codes and Decision Making

This research presents a model of Emotional Codes (EC) that influence the processes of choice, decision and action in clients. The model represents a sequence of steps to follow to identify the EC. (i) Identify the problem. (ii) Recognize the emotion (how) see Table 3. (iii) Identify the reason. (because); and (iv) Identify the emotional code (What) see Table 2. In addition, results obtained from theses and articles that demonstrate the use of emotional codes are presented. It is concluded that the emotional codes applied to language and marketing allow effective communication, the CEs have become strategies that companies use to convince, persuade and retain customers, through the effective communication of the subconscious knowledge of the emotions that the human being surfaces and the emotional code that it produces in the search for being. CEs have similar results despite globalization and the interaction of other cultures, and they adapt to the circumstances in which they operate in a technological, cultural and social environment. The EC are classified according to the triune brain; From the point of view of emotions, ECs allow us to feel, to let ourselves be carried away by impulses, by emotions, by experiences that cause us joy or, on the contrary, pain, whether they drive us or not. The EC represent the human being, emotional, with inheritances and stories that frame the needs, desires, whims, fears, experiences and fantasies.

Organization of enkephalinergic neuronal system in the central nervous system of the gecko Hemidactylus frenatus.

Enkephalins are endogenous opioid pentapeptides that play a role in neurotransmission and pain modulation in vertebrates. However, the distribution pattern of enkephalinergic neurons in the brains of reptiles has been understudied. This study reports the organization of the methionine-enkephalin (M-ENK) and leucine-enkephalin (L-ENK) neuronal systems in the central nervous system of the gecko Hemidactylus frenatus using an immunofluorescence labeling method. Although M-ENK and L-ENK-immunoreactive (ir) fibers extended throughout the pallial and subpallial subdivisions, including the olfactory bulbs, M-ENK and L-ENK-ir cells were found only in the dorsal septal nucleus. Enkephalinergic perikarya and fibers were highly concentrated in the periventricular and lateral preoptic areas, as well as in the anterior and lateral subdivisions of the hypothalamus, while enkephalinergic innervation was observed in the hypothalamic periventricular nucleus, infundibular recess nucleus and median eminence. The dense accumulation of enkephalinergic content was noticed in the pars distalis of the hypophysis. In the thalamus, the nucleus rotundus and the dorsolateral, medial, and medial posterior thalamic nuclei contained M-ENK and L-ENK-ir fibers, whereas clusters of M-ENK and L-ENK-ir neurons were observed in the pretectum, mesencephalon, and rhombencephalon. The enkephalinergic fibers were also seen in the area X around the central canal, as well as the dorsal and ventral horns. The widespread distribution of enkephalin-containing neurons within the central nervous system implies that enkephalins regulate a variety of functions in the gecko, including sensory, behavioral, hypophysiotropic, and neuroendocrine functions.

Evolutionary origin of alpha rhythms in vertebrates.

The purpose of this review extends beyond the traditional triune brain model, aiming to elucidate the evolutionary aspects of alpha rhythms in vertebrates. The forebrain, comprising the telencephalon (pallium) and diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus), is a common feature in the brains of all vertebrates. In mammals, evolution has prioritized the development of the forebrain, especially the neocortex, over the midbrain (mesencephalon) optic tectum, which serves as the prototype for the visual brain. This evolution enables mammals to process visual information in the retina-thalamus (lateral geniculate nucleus)-occipital cortex pathway. The origin of posterior-dominant alpha rhythms observed in mammals in quiet and dark environments is not solely attributed to cholinergic pontine nuclei cells functioning as a 10 Hz pacemaker in the brainstem. It also involves the ability of the neocortex's cortical layers to generate traveling waves of alpha rhythms with waxing and waning characteristics. The utilization of alpha rhythms might have facilitated the shift of attention from external visual inputs to internal cognitive processes as an adaptation to thrive in dark environments. The evolution of alpha rhythms might trace back to the dinosaur era, suggesting that enhanced cortical connectivity linked to alpha bands could have facilitated the development of nocturnal awakening in the ancestors of mammals. In fishes, reptiles, and birds, the pallium lacks a cortical layer. However, there is a lack of research clearly observing dominant alpha rhythms in the pallium or organized nuclear structures in fishes, reptiles, or birds. Through convergent evolution, the pallium of birds, which exhibits cortex-like fiber architecture, has not only acquired advanced cognitive and motor abilities but also the capability to generate low-frequency oscillations (4-25 Hz) resembling alpha rhythms. This suggests that the origins of alpha rhythms might lie in the pallium of a common ancestor of birds and mammals.

Assessment of Acetylcholinesterase Enzyme (AChE) Activity in the Developing Brain of TSD Lizard, Calotes Versicolor (Daud.)

Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) is a critical enzyme in the neuronal cholinergic system of vertebrates. It is one of the efficient cholinesterases that is involved in the termination of acetylcholine-mediated neurotransmission, rapidly hydrolyzing acetylcholine into acetate and choline. Barring a few reports on the distribution/presence of AChE enzyme activity in the adult reptilian species there are nil reports on the presence of this enzyme activity in the developing brain. Hence, the present investigation aims to evaluate AChE enzyme activity in the developing brain of an oviparous lizard, Calotes versicolor which exhibits a novel Female-Male-Female-Male (FMFM) pattern of temperature-dependent sex determination (TSD). The eggs were collected during breeding season, padded with moist cotton, and incubated in an incubator at 30o C. The whole brain from the embryos was collected during different developmental stages from oviposition (Stage 27) to hatching (stage 42). The AChE enzyme activity was quantified in the brain, according to Ellman’s protocol using a spectrophotometer. The findings reveal that the onset of AChE enzyme activity is observed as early as at oviposition, which reflects the early action of AChE activity in the developing brain. The observed results albeit indirectly suggest the involvement of AChE enzyme activity in the morphogenetic process. Further, an exponential increase in AChE activity during the post-gonadal differentiation phase indicates age-related elevation in AChE enzyme activity which in turn unveils its involvement in neuronal transmission of the embryonic brain. Besides, this specific AChE enzyme activity in the developing brain of Calotes versicolor represents a conserved pattern for the cholinergic system in vertebrates.

A brief review of limbic system anatomy, function, and its clinical implication

ABSTRACT Introduction: The limbic system, also known as the paleomammalian cortex, is a complex network of brain regions that plays a crucial role in our behavior, memory, and emotional experiences. Objective: This review aims to explore the structure, role, and clinical implications of the limbic system. It also seeks to understand how the concept of the limbic system has evolved over time, from Broca’s large limbic lobe to MacLean’s triune brain theory. Methods: The study involves an in-depth exploration of the limbic system’s constituent parts, including the limbic cortex, hippocampal formation, amygdala, septal area, and hypothalamus. It also examines the Papez and Yakovlev circuits, which are vital for emotion control. Result: The limbic system is involved in various processes, including long-term memory, spatial memory, autonomic function regulation, and the regulation of emotional reactions and behaviors. It is also essential for smell, hunger, sleep, dreams, and memory consolidation. The limbic system plays a significant role in several diseases, including epilepsy, limbic encephalitis, dementia, affective disorders, schizophrenia, KluverBucy syndrome, autism, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, Korsakoff’s psychosis, and anxiety disorders. Conclusion: Understanding the functional neuroanatomy of the limbic system is crucial for comprehending human behavior and its anomalies. This review updates the original Papez circuit and emphasizes the role of the limbic system in behavior and neuropsychiatric disorders. It provides valuable insights into a range of neuropsychiatric disorders.

UNCOVERING BRAINWORKING RECURSIVE THERAPY: A COMPREHENSIVE EXAMINATION OF SUBCONSCIOUS RESPONSE MECHANISMS AND THERAPEUTIC APPLICATIONS

This study provides a comprehensive examination of BrainWorking Recursive Therapy (BWRT), an innovative psychotherapeutic approach that leverages insights from neuroscience and consciousness studies. The study traces BWRT's theoretical foundations in research on neurological processes and the "cognitive gap" between stimulus and response. It outlines BWRT's evolution into a structured therapy model with demonstrated effectiveness for trauma, anxiety, depression, and other conditions. The narrative highlights BWRT's adaptability, aligning with digital mental health trends and interdisciplinary research directions. While critiquing limitations like lack of longitudinal data, the article situates BWRT as a promising science-based therapy warranting ongoing empirical scrutiny and innovation. BWRT was developed by drawing on concepts like the triune brain and findings on subconscious neural activity. The therapy focuses on targeting automatic response patterns mediated by the reptilian complex. BWRT has faced scepticism during its evolution but continues to gain recognition through evidence-based research. Further studies on long-term outcomes and comparative efficacy can help consolidate BWRT's position as an innovative psychotherapy model. Ongoing advances in neurotechnology present new opportunities for enhancing BWRT methodologies and expanding its applications. Keywords: comparative efficacy, digital mental health, evidence-based research, neuroscience

Is the Paleomammalian Brain of Leaders an Immutable Barrier to Lasting World Harmony?

This exploratory paper hypothesizes that sustained universal peace is inexorably limited by the human genetic drive to survive. National and corporate leaders need to be particularly aware of their powerful, persistent, reptilian brains, especially when making decisions in conflict situations with the nuclear button readily accessible. Brain structure can explain the complexity. On the one hand, the slower, problem-solving, rational, neo cerebral brain is in the frontal cortex. On the other hand, the paleomammalian, subjective, primeval brain is located in the limbic system. The paleomammalian brain is fast, self-centered, and protective. Its quickness dominates. The unfortunate corrosive sides of humanity emerge from the limbic system when survival is, or perceived to be, threatened. War, cruelty, hypocrisy and impossible fantasies manifest from this brain structure. Given that some leaders—Trump, Putin, and Kim Jong Un, have the nuclear code, the possibility of destroying humanity is real.

Anatomia macro- e microscópica do encéfalo do calango (Tropidurus torquatus) (WIED, 1820)

Abstract Reptiles have a key role in understanding amniotes’ reproductive independence of water. Many adaptations arose, including in locomotor patterns and behaviours, and the nervous system adapted to those new habits. We have described the macroscopic anatomy and cytoarchitecture of the Amazon Lava Lizard brain (Tropidurus torquatus), an abundant lizard in South America. Fifteen specimens were captured, euthanized and their brains were dissected, eight of these were processed and stained in haematoxylin-eosin. Their main areas of the brain are the telencephalon and diencephalon, in the forebrain, tectum and tegmentum, in the midbrain and medulla oblongata and cerebellum, in the hindbrain. The main and accessory olfactory bulbs are the most rostral structure of the brain and are composed of six layers. Brain hemispheres compose the telencephalon and are divided in pallium and subpallium. Medial, dorsomedial, lateral and dorsal cortices are part of the pallium. Striatum, pallidum and septum compose the subpallium. The diencephalon is composed of thalamus, epithalamus and hypothalamus. The midbrain has a ventral tegmentum, composed of torus semicircularis and a dorsal 14 layered optic tectum. Most part of the hindbrain is composed of the medulla oblongata, and the cerebellum arises from it, forming a three-layered plate like structure. In general, the brain of Tropidurus torquatus resembles those of other lizards, with its own adaptations.

Understanding Cognitive Learning Behavior with Triune Brain Model: A Perspective

Understanding Cognitive Learning Behavior with Triune Brain Model: A Perspective

A multi-objective energy coordinative and management policy for solid oxide fuel cell using triune brain large-scale multi-agent deep deterministic policy gradient

In this paper, a data-driven multi-objective energy coordinative management policy is proposed in order to enhance the net output power and efficiency of a solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) and prevent constraint violations. This study focuses on the optimization agent and controller design for a SOFC power system to maintain stable oxygen excess ratio (OER) and fuel utilization (FU) ratio as well as meet the load demand simultaneously. The optimization agent is responsible for output the reference OER and FU, aiming to achieve maximum net output power and operational efficiency as well as dynamic constraint satisfaction times in terms of OER and FU in real time. By applying reference OER and FU settings, the air and hydrogen flow within the SOFC can be effectively controlled by coordination of the air control agent and hydrogen control agent, respectively. In addition, a triune brain large-scale multi-agent deep deterministic policy gradient algorithm (TBL-MADDPG) is proposed. In order to improve the robustness of the proposed policy, the design of TBL-MADDPG entails curriculum learning, imitation learning and a large-scale multi-agent training framework. The performance of this proposed method is verified by the experiment.

Factors Influencing Impulse Buying Behavior

Impulse buying is a classic example of undefinable strong emotional desire that motivates one to purchase a product. Interesting subject to study the reasons of breaking the rules where the extrinsic factors investigated in this study can be linked to the fight between the “New Brain(neocortex)vs. Old Brain(reptilian brain)” where reptilian brain always wins as it responds to six stimuli namely1) self-centered,2) contrast,3) tangible,4) beginning and end,5) visual,6) emotion that creates chemical events in the brain leading to take the decision in unconscious level or a transient state between conscious and unconscious level. Various factors quantified in this study bear the manifestation of these intrinsic factors. Data has been collected from the general population through online mode, and the SPSS tool has been used to substantiate the study

The Brain Is Adaptive Not Triune: How the Brain Responds to Threat, Challenge, and Change.

Theory impacts how research is conducted. A popular theory used to conceptualize brain functioning is the triune brain theory. The triune brain theory is an evolutionary theory of brain development that emphasizes three key brain regions consisting of the brainstem, the limbic system, and the cortex that function relatively independently in coping with stress via fight or flight, emotion, and cognition, respectively. However, modern neuroscience research demonstrates that the triune brain theory does not accurately explain how the brain functions in everyday life or during the stress response. Specifically, emotion and cognition are interdependent and work together, the limbic system is not a purely emotional center nor are there purely emotional circuits in the brain, and the cortex is not a purely cognitive center nor are there purely cognitive circuits in the brain. We propose a new evolutionarily based model, the adaptive brain, that is founded on adaptive prediction resulting from interdependent brain networks using interoception and exteroception to balance current needs, and the interconnections among homeostasis, allostasis, emotion, cognition, and strong social bonds in accomplishing adaptive goals.

A New Class of Autopoietic and Cognitive Machines

Making computing machines mimic living organisms has captured the imagination of many since the dawn of digital computers. However, today’s artificial intelligence technologies fall short of replicating even the basic autopoietic and cognitive behaviors found in primitive biological systems. According to Charles Darwin, the difference in mind between humans and higher animals, great as it is, certainly is one of degree and not of kind. Autopoiesis refers to the behavior of a system that replicates itself and maintains identity and stability while facing fluctuations caused by external influences. Cognitive behaviors model the system’s state, sense internal and external changes, analyze, predict and take action to mitigate any risk to its functional fulfillment. How did intelligence evolve? what is the relationship between the mind and body? Answers to these questions should guide us to infuse autopoietic and cognitive behaviors into digital machines. In this paper, we show how to use the structural machine to build a cognitive reasoning system that integrates the knowledge from various digital symbolic and sub-symbolic computations. This approach is analogous to how the neocortex repurposed the reptilian brain and paves the path for digital machines to mimic living organisms using an integrated knowledge representation from different sources.

Pop the “maths anxiety” bubble : an approach to support nursing students to self-manage anxiety while studying drug calculations

This is a report on an informal action research undertaken between 2013 to 2014 to find solutions to support tertiary nursing students experiencing anxiety while studying drug calculation. The literature identifies traditional “Maths Anxiety” and modern-day specific categorisations of “Dyslexia” and “Dyscalculia”, yet offers no clear solution on how to support students. Exploring the constructive-developmental perspective of human development, the conception of the triune brain and the Psychosynthesis conceptual map of body-feelings-mind enabled me to develop an approach to base on all this wisdom in order to help students navigate their daily experience on campus and consciously express their will to succeed. These techniques proved to be successful, evidenced in the overwhelmingly positive feedback from both students and maths tutors. This article invites colleagues within the broader ATLAANZ community to adapt and apply this approach in their practice to support students with anxiety to succeed while studying.

Typology, the eight-function model, and archetypal complexes.

This clinical presentation shows what insights a typology-conscious analysis of clients and their families may lead to and points out what is added by applying John Beebe's eight-function, eight-archetype model. To reflect on the inner balance between archetypal complexes in the eight-function structure that holds our psyche, the author invites clients to do a typological analysis, including an analysis of their archetypal patterns, which may, itself, provoke anxiety. This article includes a presentation of ideas and experiences sparked when confronting these complexes in clinical work. Clients are introduced to six stages of coping with stress that may allow them to be more conscious of their complexes when triggered. These stages are Faint, Freeze, Flight, Fidget, Fight, and Flow. To identify whether the stress is physiological, emotional, or intellectual, the idea of the Triune Brain is introduced. The therapeutic work may lead to redemption from opposites, which is an ethical task.

Neuromarketing: Marketing research in the new millennium

Neuromarketing (NM) uses neuroscience tools, for example, but not limited to functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and electroencephalography (EEG) to study, explore, analyze, and explain the neural correlates of consumer’s behavior (i.e., decision-making processes), the cognitive processes (i.e., attention and memory) and emotional processes (i.e., emotion) of interest for marketing research (e.g., advertising, brand, product, price). This study analyzes the relevant literature and sheds light on the triune brain of humans, the dimensions of NM such as emotion, attention, and memory. Currently, emotional and cognitive processes have remarkably received attention from academic and industrial environments. Thus, NM presents unrivalled possibilities to record the activity regions in consumers' brains and provide precise information about which neurons are active when consumers are exposed to marketing stimuli. To best our knowledge, this will aid in shaping and understanding the central theme and set the future research directions for the researchers.

Modifying Natural Behavioral Responses by Enforcing Ethical Values

"According to different theories about neuroscience and ethics, we want to introduce the idea that the ethical values are very good levers to conduct human responses to their perceptions. These theories are based on very currently data about science and the central nervous system explained recently by a very important neuroscientist. In a very basic nervous system, the reptilian brain, humans can solve their fundamental interest and necessities, such as survival, breading, community behavior… In a more complex and posterior temporary nervous system, thanks to the known limbic brain, humans have been able to solve and to respond to their emotional problems, creating the memory center of our emotions. After this second moment and as a result of the global anthropological evolution, the cortical brain allows us to think, to deploy the global intelligences and take human decisions. Thanks to these three brain levels and their neurobiological connections, humans have developed other intangible brains, able to experience the ethics, the esthetics, and the spirituality. Our brain works as a whole. We are the result made up of more than 100.000 million connected neurons that form the brains. In some aspects, our four dimensions, the physical, the emotional, the rational and the transcendental faces act together, hand in hand. Our more ponderous decisions aren’t always rational; more than 80% of them are basically emotional. So, our spiritual manners can be showed by biophysically manifestations; conscientious and unconscientious affects us equally. Human brain is genetically prepared to answer. Historically formed to respond, the central nervous system can be explained as the most complex organ to produce responses to multiple previous perceptions. These perceptions can be tangible or not, external or internal, consciences or not, actual or memorized. Our point of view is that we can introduce ethical values as a non-conscientious response. Working from rational and emotional ways our ethical values, we will introduce them in our transcendental brain. All posterior relationship between the brain areas will influence the behavior response to the real perceptions that we are exposed to. So, to summarize, enforced ethical values can unconscientiously modify our behavioral response. "

Neuromyths in the Light of the Theory of Systemic-Dynamic Brain Organization of Mental Functions

Knowledge about brain functioning is important for many professionals, especially in the fields of medicine and education, but for a wide audience as well. Neuromyths are false (completely or partially) simple and seemingly logical statements about the anatomy or functioning of the human brain. This paper presents typical sources of such errors such as misinterpretation, oversimplification, or overgeneralization. Special attention is given to analysis of some examples of the long-established source of misconceptions—regarding functional asymmetry of brain hemispheres, to the myth of the triune brain, and the so called “Mozart effect” from the point of view of the Lurian systemic-dynamic approach to brain functions.

Chemical Communication in Lizards and a Potential Role for Vasotocin in Modulating Social Interactions.

Lizards use chemical communication to mediate many reproductive, competitive, and social behaviors, but the neuroendocrine mechanisms underlying chemical communication in lizards are not well understood and understudied. By implementing a neuroendocrine approach to the study of chemical communication in reptiles, we can address a major gap in our knowledge of the evolutionary mechanisms shaping chemical communication in vertebrates. The neuropeptide arginine vasotocin (AVT) and its mammalian homolog vasopressin are responsible for a broad spectrum of diversity in competitive and reproductive strategies in many vertebrates, mediating social behavior through the chemosensory modality. In this review, we posit that, though limited, the available data on AVT-mediated chemical communication in lizards reveal intriguing patterns that suggest AVT plays a more prominent role in lizard chemosensory behavior than previously appreciated. We argue that these results warrant more research into the mechanisms used by AVT to modify the performance of chemosensory behavior and responses to conspecific chemical signals. We first provide a broad overview of the known social functions of chemical signals in lizards, the glandular sources of chemical signal production in lizards (e.g., epidermal secretory glands), and the chemosensory detection methods and mechanisms used by lizards. Then, we review the locations of vasotocinergic populations and neuronal projections in lizard brains, as well as sites of peripheral receptors for AVT in lizards. Finally, we end with a case study in green anoles (Anolis carolinensis), discussing findings from recently published work on the impact of AVT in adult males on chemosensory communication during social interactions, adding new data from a similar study in which we tested the impact of AVT on chemosensory behavior of adult females. We offer concluding remarks on addressing several fundamental questions regarding the role of AVT in chemosensory communication and social behavior in lizards.