Archaeological Evaluation Research Articles

Ślad osadnictwa z wczesnej epoki brązu w Schronisku w Udorzu II (Udórz, gm. Żarnowiec, woj. śląskie)

The Rockshelter in Udórz II (Udórz, Żarnowiec Commune, Śląskie Voivodeship) lies at the northern end of the Udorka valley (fig. 1) in the Ryczów Upland (central portion of the Kraków-Częstochowa Upland). In 2012 an interdisciplinary programme of trial trenching was carried out at the shelter site (fig. 2) as one of the stages of a project designed to record evidence of prehistoric occupation in the Udorka valley and to examine its palaeoenvironmental context.Sedimentary fill of this site comprise four strata of different lithology (fig. 3). The lowermost layer 4 is a sediment which was created by frost weathering in cold climatic conditions during the Pleistocene. Layer 3 consists of a light brown silty sand with a high content of sharp-edged debris, deposited during the Last Glacial Maximum. Layer 2 can be related to the Late Pleistocene and most of the Holocene. It is composed of grey-brown silty sand with a high content of sharp-edged limestone debris. In contrast, layer 1 is a dark grey-brown silty sand with small amounts of rounded limestone debris, which was formed in the warm climatic conditions of the Late Holocene.Flintwork and potsherds were recorded at the interface of layers 1 and 2, and in the roof of layer 2. Analysis of distribution patterns reveals that these finds were concentrated around a hearth, traces of which were recorded at the south-west part of the trial trench (fig. 4). The small flintwork assemblage is not very distinctive and shows evidence of having been burnt (fig. 6: 1–3). Most of it forms a similar scatter to the pottery.The ceramic sherds represent the remains of at least three vessels, probably including a bowl; decoration in the form of cord impressions was noted on this pottery (fig. 5: 4–12). Based on typological, chronological and comparative studies this assemblage was attributed to the early period of development of the Mierzanowice culture, dated to 2200–2050 BC.The fragmentary remains of a camp recorded at the Rockshelter in Udórz II suggest that as well as larger caves, late Neolithic and early Bronze Age communities also readily adapted smaller ones for use as short-term occupation sites, avoiding those where no daylight penetrated. This model of temporary or seasonal camps is consistent with current archaeological findings. Analysis of early Bronze Age materials from Małopolska (Little Poland) indicates that late Neolithic and early Bronze Age communities did not inhabit the Kraków-Częstochowa Upland on a permanent basis, only making forays into this area in search of flint and probably also rare plants and fruit.

Impacts of mid- to late-Holocene land use on residual hill geomorphology: A remote sensing and archaeological evaluation of human-related soil erosion in central Karnataka, South India

This paper describes the impacts of Neolithic Period ( c. 5000–3200 cal. BP) and Iron Age ( c. 3200–2300 cal. BP) occupation and land use on the geomorphology of residual hills that punctuate an expansive planation surface in central Karnataka, South India. Analyses of archaeological survey data, soil and regolith profiles, remotely sensed metrics of hill morphology and distributions of soil and sediment, and paleoecological data indicate that cultural land use altered the morphology of these features and the distribution of soils on them, and consequently impacted the processes by which they continued to develop. Statistical regression models indicate that archaeological evidence for ancient land use is a significant explanatory variable for the proportion of remaining soil cover and exposed residual rock on the sampled hills. Moreover, multivariate regression models explaining soil removal on the hills are effective when including archaeological proxies for ancient land use along with other geomorphological variables. The combined effects of intensified agro-pastoral land use, vegetation changes, and variations in climatic humidity during the mid-Holocene to late Holocene appear to have facilitated erosional conditions that outpaced subsurface weathering. These findings imply that the refinement of models for the development of residual hills in South India, where early paradigms for explaining the evolution of such landforms were formalized, should consider the effects of Holocene land use where applicable. The findings also suggest that recent efforts to understand the unique ecology of these landforms should account for historical human land use.

Comparing Apparent Magnetic Susceptibility Measurements of a Multi‐receiver EMI Sensor with Topsoil and Profile Magnetic Susceptibility Data over Weak Magnetic Anomalies

ABSTRACTToday, most surveys in archaeogeophysical prospection use magnetic properties to detect archaeological features. Such magnetic surveys are usually conducted with magnetometers and, to a lesser extent, with magnetic susceptibility meters and electromagnetic induction (EMI) sensors. Although the latter are the only instruments that allow mapping multiple physical soil properties simultaneously, EMI remains the odd‐one‐out in archaeogeophysical prospection. Nevertheless, by simultaneously recording the electric and magnetic soil variability, EMI survey can be beneficial in early archaeological evaluation stages, because detailed pedological and archaeological information is gathered at the same time. Furthermore, by using multi‐receiver EMI instruments vertical soil variation also can be integrated into the survey. However, although the potential of EMI for mapping electric soil variations is well known from advances in soil science, magnetic susceptibility measurements have been investigated less. Here we show the potential of a multi‐receiver EMI survey to detect weak magnetic anomalies by measuring the apparent magnetic susceptibility (κa) of multiple soil volumes at a test site. The shallowκadata were compared with topsoil susceptibility measurements using a magnetic susceptibility loop sensor survey, and with magnetic susceptibility profiling using a probe sensor for evaluating the deeperκa‐data. Further comparisons were made between these datasets and aerial photography and field walking data. We found that the multiple EMIκameasurements allowed for a straightforward discrimination of the natural and anthropogenic magnetic variations of shallow and deeper soil volumes, and allowed visualizing weak magnetic anomalies. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Soil micromorphological evidence from Iron Age land use at Tornby and Mörtlösa in Linköping, Sweden

The area of Linköping, Sweden, has a land use history of several millennia. In the last two decades, many archaeological investigations of different types have been conducted here. They range from trial trenching to full scale excavations of large areas and are connected to the expansion of the city.The Early Iron Age landscape of the area was formed by animal husbandry and the requirements of the domesticated animals. Earlier research has revealed an intensification and specialization within animal husbandry in the region, occurring around the Birth of Christ, when farms seemed particularly to specialize towards milk production. However, this transition and its local variations is still poorly investigated. Arable farming is assumed to have been characterized by small intensively used and improved cultivated areas close to the settlements, but there are many questions still to be answered about the specific soil management types and crops. There is a need to further investigate the land use history of the area from the Early Iron Age (2440–2010 BP) until Medieval times (AD 1030–1536).As part of the archaeological excavations carried out by the Swedish National Heritage Board in 2007, six samples from three localities, all in the Linköping municipality, were chosen for soil micromorphological analysis. At the locality of Tornby I, traces were found of anthropogenic activities including some kind of building activities, prior to a period with extensive cultivation activities nearby, presumably when the settlement was established in the Pre-Roman Iron Age (ca. 200 BC). It was followed by a period with soil management on the locality, interpreted as a kind of garden cultivation. The locality of Tornby II, was presumably used a pasture in an early period and as a cultivation field with soil improvement in a later period. At the locality of Mörtlösa, dated to the Roman Iron Age (2010–1680 BP) and the Migration Period (BC/AD – 550 AD), traces from two different contemporary activity areas could be differentiated within few meters of a profile: a cultivated field which has been improved with different kinds of manure through time, and presumably a pathway for animals.

A Swedish Man-of-War in Dutch Waters: an archaeological field evaluation of the wreck of the Sophia Albertina by Alice Overmeer 93 pp., 50 colour illustrations, some b&w including plans and line drawings, maps Cultural Heritage Agency of the Netherlands,

A Swedish Man-of-War in Dutch Waters: an archaeological field evaluation of the wreck of the Sophia Albertina by Alice Overmeer 93 pp., 50 colour illustrations, some b&w including plans and line drawings, maps Cultural Heritage Agency of the Netherlands,

Le Néolithique ancien à l’ouest de la Bretagne : nouvelles découvertes à Pen Hoat Salaün (Pleuven, Finistère)

Excavated in 2008 and covering an area of 3700m2 in preparation for the development of a large supermarket, the site of Pen Hoat Salaün yields evidence for two occupations, one attributable to the Bertheaume group (Early Mesolithic, 8300–8200 years BP), and the other to the end of the Early Neolithic (4800–4700years BP). Located at the top of a slope at the edge of a plateau and overlooking a graben, the site commands an extensive panoramic view towards the north-east. The granitic substrate is capped by a cover of Quaternary surface formations, no more than 1m in thickness and consisting of three distinct sandy-loam levels (US 1–3). The two lowermost levels are made up of reworked and colluvial materials, derived from the granitic sands and residual lœssal formations of the plateau, whereas the uppermost level corresponds to the present-day soil horizon developed on recent agricultural colluvium. Moreover, excavation of this cover has led to the discovery of lithic objects attributed primarily to the Mesolithic in a lower archaeological level (US 3), while a mixture of fragments attributed to the Mesolithic and Neolithic is found in a higher archaeological level (US 2). This latter lithic material is associated with ceramic shards, but to a lesser degree (than in US 3). A total of 763 shards are recorded, showing bowl or bottle-like forms; the decorations are dominated by panels of embossed buttons, cordons – including one small part with finger-printed ornament – and ribs in relief, as well as impressions made with a blunt point or spatula. Although some characters can be distinguished with different proportions in the two lithic assemblages, there is also a clear lack of tools characteristic of the early or middle Neolithic period (arrowheads, borers and burins). Moreover, we note the disappearance in this area of the laminar debitage sequences so characteristic of the Villeneuve Saint-Germain culture, in favour of the production of flakes. This sparse lithic assemblage is accompanied by a muscovite-sillimanite gneiss axehead and a fragment of a schist/wackestone ring. The former item belongs to a context – also known as carnacean – in which axeheads have high social value, with a possible alpine origin in view of its type (probably repolished Bégude), even though such rocks are also present in the Armorican Massif. A serpentinite ring-disc discovered in 2007 in a trial trench 100m south-west of the excavation area appears to represent another exceptional item, possibly originating in the Alps, though a local provenance is discussed. Although not strictly associated with the shards, four radiocarbon dates obtained on burned brushwood indicate an age range of 4800–4700years BP. While it is out of the question to speak in terms of an association, the Pen Hoat Salaün assemblage offers a good outline of stylistic and technonolgical features at the end of the early Neolithic, as a prelude to the Castellic.

Exploring the potential of multi-receiver EMI survey for geoarchaeological prospection: A 90 ha dataset

The archaeological evaluation of landscapes in the framework of developer-led archaeology is often based on extensive trenching programmes complemented with auger surveys in wetland environments. During the archaeological evaluation of a 90ha polder site in the north-west of Belgium, a mobile multi-receiver electromagnetic induction (EMI) survey was used as a main prospecting technique. The use of a mobile survey allowed to map the entire study area at a very fine resolution (over 25 measurements per m2). Incorporating a multi-receiver EMI instrument enabled measuring the apparent electrical conductivity (ECa) and the apparent magnetic susceptibility (MSa) of four different soil volumes simultaneously at each location. The detailed maps provided insight into the archaeological and geomorphological features of the site. Among the detected structures were a large medieval farmstead, a palaeoriver system and a number of military remains from World War I (WWI). The vertical discrimination potential added insight into the vertical facies changes, which allowed modeling the palaeolandscape and helped determining the depth of detected medieval features. The different MSa measurements gave additional insight into the WWI structures. In this paper, we give an overview of the possibilities of combining multiple ECa measurements for interpreting vertical soil variability together with an example of the added information from simultaneously gathered MSa data. More generally, the diverse potential of multi-receiver EMI survey for geoarchaeological research is demonstrated.

Prehistoric Pits at Auchinleck Close, Driffield, East Yorkshire

An archaeological investigation was carried out in advance of a housing development at Auchinleck Close, Driffield, on the basis of a Late Iron Age and Roman ditched enclosure complex identified through evaluation by geophysical survey and trial trenching. This report however focuses upon a number of Late Neolithic and Late Bronze Age/Iron Age pits which were found as an unexpected consequence of these investigations.

The Management of Star Carr

Recent archaeological evaluations at Star Carr have indicated that the formerly waterlogged deposits are approaching a chemical and hydrological crisis point. Star Carr and its wider landscape context also face additional conservation pressures from the extraction of aggregates, the expansion of urban Scarborough (and the concomitant changes in hydrology), intensive arable use and landscape change designed to create wetland landscapes.The paper presented by English Heritage in Cambridge considered the progress that had been made with regard to the protection and management of the site since the first seminar in York in 2008 and outlined the methodology being adopted to oversee its conservation management. The philosophical underpinning to the management of the Star Carr site is based on the English Heritage Conservation Principles (English Heritage 2008) which requires that the different values attached to a place are expressed and amalgamated into an agreed statement of its cultural significance. Of particular importance at Star Carr is its 'evidential value', its potential to yield evidence about past human activity. Once this value is lost the site will lose a key part of its significance, so how can this value be sustained?

Use of waste gypsum for trench backfill

In the UK, legislation is limiting the disposal of gypsum therefore alternative applications are encouraged. Large quantities of red gypsum arise from the production of titanium dioxide and from waste plasterboard. Both red gypsum and plasterboard gypsum were investigated for use in trench backfill. Red gypsum comprised filter cake lumps with moisture content of about 40% and up to about 100mm in size and plasterboard gypsum consisted dust to thin slab like particles with moisture content of about 20%. The latter was both with paper and without paper. The investigation undertaken aimed to develop gypsum-based trench backfill that required zero compaction, and could be mixed and placed using existing plant without specialist labor. Successful mixes containing waste gypsum, limestone quarry fines and Portland cement that complied with the existing specifications were developed. Tests included determination of unconfined compressive strength, soaked strength, resistance to freeze and thaw and sulfate contents. The sulfate levels in these mixes were within acceptable limits. The most suitable mix was evaluated in a short section of full-scale trial trench and was subjected to 1 million cycles of standard axle load. Deformation was found to occur only in the base course and wearing course layers.

New data on the Late Neolithic settlement structure in South-East Transdanubia

The paper presents the recent survey results achieved at four Late Neolithic sites with rondels in Baranya County, Hungary (Villánykövesd-Jakabfalusi út mente, Zengővárkony-Igaz-dűlő, Szemely-Hegyes, Belvárdgyula-Szarkahegy). The combined use of non-destructive archaeological prospecting methods (aerial survey, field survey, magnetometer survey) and occassional trial trenching revealed new pieces of information that change our view of the Late Neolithic settlement structure in the region. Such observations are: the fact that rondels are present at virtually every major site in South-East Baranya the presence of special structural elements known only in South Transdanubia, like U-shaped blocking of entrances, special gate structures the large size of rondels when compared to other areas of longer history of research, like Lower Austria and Slovakia. These phenomena suggest the existence of a local „architectural style“ and may be indicative of a local group within the Lengyel Culture sphere.

Lockerbie Academy

Trial trenching carried out by CFA Archaeology Ltd in 2006 to the north of Lockerbie Academy (NGR: NY 13398273) identified four areas of archaeological significance covering a timescale from early Neolithic to post-medieval periods. The earliest site identified was the remains of a Neolithic timber hall, which was situated on top of the flat plateau towards the northwest end of the site (Area A). Pottery recovered from the Neolithic structure was of the Carinated Bowl ceramic tradition. At the summit of the rounded knoll in the centre of the area (Area D) a Bronze Age phase consisting of a cremation and inhumation cemetery enclosed by a possible ring-cairn was identified. The Bronze Age cemetery included a Collared Urn and a copper alloy dagger of Butterwick type. At the base of the rounded knoll, the remains of an Early Historic timber hall were identified (Area C). This Anglian timber hall reoccupied the site of a post-built structure, which was interpreted as a timber hall, possibly belonging to an earlier British tradition. Radiocarbon dates taken from the primary fill of two of the post-holes of the earlier structure gave dates which are broadly contemporary with the dates obtained for the Anglian hall, suggesting that the post-built structure immediately preceded it. A corn-drying kiln was identified cut into the same knoll as the Bronze Age cemetery (Area D) and has been dated to the late medieval or early post-medieval period. A segmented ditched enclosure was located towards the north-east end of the site (Area B), but the poor survival of this feature combined with a lack of finds and palaeobotanical evidence means that it remains undated and poorly understood.

Lockerbie AcademyNeolithic and Early Historic timber halls, a Bronze Age cemetery, an undated enclosure and a post-medieval corn-drying kiln in south-west Scotland

Trial trenching carried out by CFA Archaeology Ltd in 2006 to the north of Lockerbie Academy identified four areas of archaeological significance covering a timescale from early Neolithic to post-medieval periods. The earliest site identified was the remains of a Neolithic timber hall, which was situated on top of the flat plateau towards the northwest end of the site (Area A). Pottery recovered from the Neolithic structure was of the Carinated Bowl ceramic tradition.At the summit of the rounded knoll in the centre of the area (Area D) a Bronze Age phase consisting of a cremation and inhumation cemetery enclosed by a possible ring-cairn was identified. The Bronze Age cemetery included a Collared Urn and a copper alloy dagger of Butterwick type.At the base of the rounded knoll, the remains of an Early Historic timber hall were identified (Area C). This Anglian timber hall reoccupied the site of a post-built structure, which was interpreted as a timber hall, possibly belonging to an earlier British tradition. Radiocarbon dates taken from the primary fill of two of the post-holes of the earlier structure gave dates which are broadly contemporary with the dates obtained for the Anglian hall, suggesting that the post-built structure immediately preceded it.A corn-drying kiln was identified cut into the same knoll as the Bronze Age cemetery (Area D) and has been dated to the late medieval or early post-medieval period.A segmented ditched enclosure was located towards the north-east end of the site (Area B), but the poor survival of this feature combined with a lack of finds and palaeobotanical evidence means that it remains undated and poorly understood.

Neolithic domesticity and other prehistoric anomalies: excavations at Laigh Newton, East Ayrshire

A series of archaeological evaluations and excavations at Laigh Newton in East Ayrshire revealed evidence for intermittent occupation of this valley terrace between the Mesolithic and the Late Iron Age. The plough-truncated archaeology included the remains of a rectangular building and associated features of the mid-late fourth millennium BC, a more ephemeral structure and related pits of the mid third millennium BC, a charcoal-burning pit of the mid-first millennium AD and two other rectilinear structures of indeterminate date.

Neolithic domesticity and other prehistoric anomalies

A series of archaeological evaluations and excavations at Laigh Newton in East Ayrshire (NGR: NS 5937 3684) revealed evidence for intermittent occupation of this valley terrace between the Mesolithic and the Late Iron Age. The plough-truncated archaeology included the remains of a rectangular building and associated features of the mid-late 4th millennium BC, a more ephemeral structure and related pits of the mid-3rd millennium BC, a charcoal-burning pit of the mid-1st millennium AD and two other rectilinear structures of indeterminate date.

Characteristics, origin and geoarchaeological significance of carbonate concretions from the early Bronze Age locality „Orovački vinogradi“, (Bjelovar, Croatia)

“White horizon” archaeological units consisting of carbonate concretions occur in the archaeological settlement of “Orovački vinogradi”, located near Bjelovar (NW Croatia). During archaeological excavation these horizons were considered to be the inhabitation-levels within the historical layering profile. Further sedimentological and mineralogical research and comparison of the profile with an anthropogenically unaffected site nearby (“Ciglenska strana”) required re-evaluation of this interpretation. These horizons of carbonate concretions are interpreted as the result of diagenetic processes developed within the Upper Pontian sequence of sands, clayey sands and sandstones. A sedimentary-diagenetic model is suggested for their formation. These results had consequences for the archaeological evaluation of the settlement and influenced further investigations at the locality.

Excavation at Tollpark Roman Temporary Camp, North Lanarkshire

CFA Archaeology Ltd carried out an archaeological investigation at Tollpark Roman Temporary Camp ditch, close to the Antonine Wall, in advance of a retail development by Cumbernauld Retail Park Limited Partnership. A desk-based assessment suggested that the camp ditch survived below the made ground of the factory's landscaped grounds. Trial trenching confirmed the ditch's presence in the development area, and that it was largely intact. The ditch in this area measured a maximum of 92m x 127m and was fully excavated. The ditch was typically V-shaped in profile with an intermittent ankle-breaker and two entrances were identified on the western side. The only artefactual remains of Roman date recovered were fragments of waterlogged wood which showed signs of tooling. Analysis of the ditch fill deposits indicated that the ditch filled in gradually, and was not deliberately filled upon abandonment of the camp. No other features associated with the camp were identified.

KIRIKUMÄGI AT SIKSÄLÄ: EVIDENCE OF A NEW GRAVE FORM IN SOUTH-EASTERN ESTONIA?; pp. 40–55

Finding place and context The archaeological complex of Siksala (Laul & Valk 2007) is located in the south-easternmost corner of Estonia, 2-3 km south of Misso village, ca. 7 km west of the present-day Estonian-Russian border and 3-4 km north of the Estonian-Latvian border. The complex consists of several monuments, including two cemeteries called Kalmetemagi (Graves' Hill) and Kirikumagi (Church Hill) which are located at the ends of the same oblong ridge. The cemetery on Kalmetemagi, mainly from the 11th-15th centuries, was investigated in the extent of ca. 80% in 1980-1993, whereby 242 inhumation graves with 253 burials, and 27 cremation burials were studied (Heapost 2007, table 1; Laul & Valk 2007, 29-80). In the further analysis of the scattered material from cremation graves, regarded formerly as stray finds, 11 additional cremations have been distinguished. The first excavations on Kirikumagi, a hill with the height of ca. 6 m between Lake Hino and Lake Mustjarv (Fig. 1) took place in 2003 (Valk 2004), in order to verify or disprove the former presence of the chapel, reflected in oral tradition, and of the suggested medieval cemetery. In the course of these works a 100 m long and 40 cm wide trench was dug along the hilltop (Fig. 2). The trench was divided into 1-metre long units, the numeration of which started from the west. The investigations were continued in 2004 (Valk 2005) with the aim to study and date the discovered chapel site and cemetery. During these excavations a ca. 35 m2 area, cut by the trial trenches, was opened in the southern part of the hill. In both years, especially in 2003, also some fragments of cremated bones were found from three areas, designated as A, B and C--two in the central and one in the southwestern part of the hill (Fig. 2). Between these areas, likewise in the north-eastern part of Kirikumagi, almost no cremation remains were discovered. [FIGURE 1 OMITTED] [FIGURE 2 OMITTED] In 2007 additional excavations were made in area A, in order to study the whole bone assemblage which was cut by the trench in 2003 and which was first interpreted as a pit-grave cremation (Valk 2004, 125). For that purpose, the formerly studied 2 m long part of the trench with cremated bones was extended in both directions for 0.5 m (to get more space for digging, also the filled trench was emptied again). Thus, in all, 2.8 [m.sup.2] was studied at the spot. The earth was dug by 10 cm thick layers. In 2003, the area where bones were found in the trench was regarded as one stratigraphic unit which was dug by horizontal layers. In 2007, the bones were collected by squares of 0.25 [m.sup.2] (the system was based on the general squares' system used in 2003) and by 10 cm layers. To find all the bone fragments, the ground was sieved. In total 69 different bone assemblages, based mainly on 1 m long parts of the trench or 1 m2 squares of the excavation plot of 2004, all of 10 cm thickness, were collected for analysis from Kirikumagi. In reality there existed, however, no distinct borders between the separately analysed assemblages: borders are only conventional, conditioned by the methodology of picking up bones. Distribution of cremated bones The first area of cremated bones (Fig. 2, A) where altogether 1184.9 g bone fragments were found (862.9 g in 2003 and 322 g in 2007) formed a 1.7 m long section of the trench. Some dispersed bone fragments which probably belonged together with them were gained also from the neighbouring square in the northeast (C/50; 5.4 g), and from squares located 0.5-1.5 m (G/ 47; 1.5 g) and 3.5-4.5 m (G/44; 0.9 g) to the south-west from the edge of the main concentration area (Fig. 2, A: 3). The second concentration area (Fig. 2, B) was ca. 5-6 m south-east of area A, in the excavation plot added to the main trench in 2003 (squares H/51 and H/52). Here 70.9 g of bones were found. The finds were from the area with the diameter of 1. …

Brotchie's Steading, Dunnet, Caithness: a 19th-century croft house and earlier settlement mound

Brotchie’s steading is a ruined croft house that is of particular interest because several large fragmentsof worked whale mandible were recently recovered from one of the rooms. These were identified ashaving supported the roof of the building as a pair of cruck blades (a Highland couple).
 The excavation programme was initially designed to further examine the role of whale bonesas a construction material within the context of the Caithness croft house. Excavations in 2001revealed a further element of in situ whale bone that enabled an informed reconstruction of theoriginal structure. The investigations on site also identified at least 1.5m of stratigraphy exposedin the bank to the west of the site, indicating at least four phases of building beneath the ruinedcroft house.
 Subsequent trial trenching determined that the bank upon which Brotchie’s steading now sitsis largely man-made and part of an extensive settlement mound. The base of the sequence, in thesouthern part of the site, revealed what appears to have been an occupation surface, and materialfrom this provided a date in the range 390–170 BC. At the north end of the site a thick layer of stonerubble associated with a clay- and stone-lined pit and two red deer antler picks was identified.Radiocarbon determination of samples of antler and cow bone indicate further occupation of thesite in the first–third centuries ad. The overlying strata supported by a sequence of radiocarbondates and finds indicate that the site was also a focus of human activity in the fifth, 13th and 15thcenturies AD up until the early 20th century. While the full extent of the site is currently unknown,the possibility presents itself that the adjacent knoll, upon which Dunnet Kirk now sits, forms a partof a major archaeological site that has seen almost continuous, or at least regular, occupation forover two millennia.

John Smeaton's Snuff Mill at Chimney Mills, Newcastle upon Tyne: Building Recording and Excavations on the Site of the Former Leazes Brewery

This article analyses the results of a programme of archaeological building recording and evaluation on the site of the Leazes Brewery, established in 1837 using premises built c. 1782 as a water-powered snuff mill to a design by John Smeaton (1724–1792), possibly his only mill designed for this use. Smeaton is of national significance as a designer of wind- and water-powered industrial machinery and buildings, and he was among the first to describe himself as a 'civil engineer' and as a 'professional'.The only part of the snuff mill still surviving above ground is the Grade II listed Leazes, or Transport, House. Two unlisted parallel brick-built ranges to the north-west of Leazes House, built after c. 1782 but before 1831 and forming part of the later use of the snuff manufactory, had been incorporated into the Leazes Brewery and latterly Newcastle University's Jones Marine Engineering Laboratories. These ranges were demolished after recording in March 2008.