Triadic Supervision Research Articles

Collaboratively pursuing student uptake of feedback through storytelling: a conversation analytic study of interaction in team doctoral supervision

Abstract Team supervision has become prevalent in worldwide doctoral education programs in the past few decades. Research indicates that one area of challenges involves collaboration between supervisors. However, little is known about how supervisors collaborate in supervision meetings involving multiple supervisors as existing studies mostly draw on participant self-reports. Adopting conversation analysis, this study examines how supervisors can collaborate through storytelling drawing on the corpus of 34 storytelling sequences in 15 triadic supervision meetings. A major finding is that storytelling can be used as a resource for collaboratively pursuing student uptake of feedback. Specifically when a supervisor is providing feedback, and the other supervisor can tell stories in pursuit of student uptake. Another finding involves the production of second storytelling: when students do not show uptake at the completion of the first storytelling produced by one supervisor, the other supervisor may launch a second storytelling to pursue student uptake. In addition, supervisors can collaborate through co-production of storytelling: near the end of a story produced by one supervisor, the other supervisor can add increments, which shape student uptake of the feedback under delivery. These findings are potentially useful for the professional development of supervisors.

The Reflective Model of Triadic Supervision as a Means of Fostering Cultural Humility

Our increasingly diverse world of clinical practice and supervision necessitates clinical supervisors foster supervisees’ abilities to attend to clients’ cultural contexts, lenses, and frameworks (Patallo in Training and Education in Professional Psychology, 13(3), 227–232, 2019). Equally relevant is promoting clinicians’ own critique of accepted clinical practices (Hardin et al. in American Psychologist, 69(7), 656–668, 2014). Such a stance is now being referred to as embodying cultural humility. It is emerging as central to culturally responsive and competent clinical practice (Patallo in Training and Education in Professional Psychology, 13(3), 227–232, 2019). Clinical supervision provides one context for fostering cultural humility. Clinical supervision has historically been delivered in one to one or group formats. However, across the last twenty years, triadic supervision has slowly and consistently made inroads as a legitimate and effective form of clinical supervision (Stinchfield et al. in International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling 32, 225–239, 2007). This paper will describe one such triadic supervision model, the Reflective Model of Triadic Supervision (RMTS, Kleist and Hill in: The reflective model of triadic supervision, 2003) as a viable model to foster the development of cultural humility in supervision.

Using the Integrated Developmental Model of Supervision in a Vocational Counseling Setting

This paper proposes a concept of supervision at a vocational counseling setting. Using the Integrated Developmental Model with triadic supervision for trainees employed at YGS Placement Service agency will facilitate client welfare and counselor in training development. Along with supervision comes evaluating and assessing trainees' competence. Using the Counseling Competency Scale, the Supervisee Levels Questionnaire-Revised, and reflective journaling will benefit the supervision experience. Determining the level of development of trainees using the integrated development model is the first step to organize and plan the supervision meetings.
 Keywords: integrated developmental model, triadic supervision, vocational counseling, trainee, clinical supervision

Most and Least Helpful Events in Three Supervision Modalities

The authors conducted a content analysis of supervisors’ (n = 10) and supervisees’ (n = 31) descriptions (n = 707) of most and least helpful significant events in individual, group, and triadic supervision across 1 semester. Categories by group for each modality and areas of agreement and disagreement are highlighted.

Nondisclosure in Triadic Supervision: A Phenomenological Study of Counseling Students

Triadic supervision is common within counselor training; however, limited research in professional counseling literature exists describing counseling students' experiences of choosing what to disclose within triadic supervision. Using transcendental phenomenological research, the authors investigated supervisees' nondisclosure within triadic supervision. Critical nondisclosure themes were relationships, presence of peer, and sharing time.

Examining the Practicum Experience to Increase Counseling Students’ Self-Efficacy

Master's level counseling programs accredited by the Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Education Programs (CACREP, 2016) require students to complete practicum and internship courses that involve group and individual or triadic supervision. Although clinical supervision provides students with effective skill development (Bernard & Goodyear, 2004), counseling students may begin practicum with low self-efficacy regarding their counseling abilities and skills. Given the importance of clinical supervision and counselor self-efficacy, it is surprising that there are limited studies that have examined the impact of supervision and practicum experience from the perspectives of supervisees. Almost all studies within this domain are qualitative and involve personal interviews with supervisees or supervisors (e.g., Hein & Lawson, 2008). In order to fill a gap in the literature and document the impact of the practicum experience, this study examined the effectiveness of the practicum experience encompassing direct counseling services, group supervision and triadic supervision to increase counseling students' self-efficacy. First, we provide a literature review regarding group supervision, triadic supervision and counselor self-efficacy. Next, we present findings from a study with 11 counseling practicum students. Finally, we provide a discussion regarding the importance of these findings as well as implications for counseling practice and research.Supervision in Counselor Education CourseworkCACREP requires an average of one and a half hours of weekly group supervision in practicum courses that involves an instructor with up to six counseling graduate students (Degges-White, Colon, & Borzumato-Gainey, 2012). Borders et al. (2012) identified that group supervisors use leadership skills, facilitate and monitor peer feedback, and encourage supervisees to take ownership of group process in group supervision. Borders and colleagues (2012) identified several benefits in group supervision, including exposure to multiple counselor styles and ability to learn about various educational issues. There also were challenges such as limited helpful feedback, brevity of case presentations, timing of group meetings and lack of educational opportunities. In another study, Conn, Roberts, and Powell (2009) compared hybrid and face-to-face supervision among school counseling interns. There were similarities in perceptions of quality of supervision, suggesting that distance learning can provide effective group supervision. CACREP counseling programs also require students to receive one hour of weekly supervision from a faculty member or doctoral student supervisor. Triadic is one form of supervision that involves a process whereby one supervisor meets and provides feedback with two supervisees (Hein & Lawson, 2008). Hein and Lawson (2008) explored supervisors' perspectives on triadic supervision and found increased demands on the role of the supervisor. For example, supervisors felt additional pressure to support both supervisees in supervision. Additionally, Lawson, Hein, and Stuart (2009) investigated supervisees' perspectives of triadic supervision. Noteworthy findings included: some students perceived less time and attention to their needs; importance of compatibility between supervisees; and careful attention must be given when communicating feedback, particularly if negative feedback must be given.Finally, Borders et al. (2012) explored supervisors' and supervisees' perceptions of individual, triadic and group supervision. Benefits included vicarious learning experiences, peer-learning opportunities, and better supervisor feedback, while challenges included peer mismatch and difficulty keeping both supervisees involved.Counselor Self-EfficacyOne of the most important outcome variables in counseling is self-efficacy. Bandura (1986) defined self-efficacy as individuals' confidence in their ability to perform courses of action or achieve a desired outcome. …

Triadic Supervision with Practicum and Internship Counseling Students: A Peer Supervision Approach

Accreditation standards in counseling allow triadic supervision, one supervisor meeting with two supervisees simultaneously, as a substitute for individual supervision. Research, however, has indicated that triadic sessions may complement individual and group supervision by offering unique learning opportunities not present in other supervision modalities. We describe a peer supervision approach that capitalizes on these learning opportunities while addressing some of the challenges in conducting triadic supervision (e.g., helping supervisees give constructive feedback, keeping both engaged). We include structured peer review forms used with practicum and internship supervisees and describe different supervisor roles during triadic supervision with these two groups.

A Content Analysis of Peer Feedback in Triadic Supervision

There is limited research on the types of peer feedback exchanged during triadic supervision. Through a content analysis, the authors found that students provided feedback about counseling performance and cognitive counseling skills most often in supervision sessions. However, there were differences in the types of feedback exchanged across three experience levels.

Lessons from Triadic Supervisors: Maximizing Effectiveness

Through this hermeneutic-phenomenological qualitative study, 10 supervisors of a CACREP accredited program identified emergent themes and challenges of triadic supervision: relationship dynamics, feedback, time management, contextual learning, and matching of supervisees. The researchers offer specific methods to approach these challenges within triadic supervision to maximize effectiveness. Author's Notes Correspondence addressing this article should be sent to Andrew Felton: afelton4@uwyo.edu

Supervisee Incompatibility and Its Influence on Supervisee and Supervisor Outcomes in Triadic Supervision: An Investigation of Supervisors' Perspectives

A qualitative study was conducted to examine supervisors' experiences of the outcomes for themselves and their supervisees when supervisee incompatibility was present in triadic supervision. In-depth, open-ended interviews were conducted with nine supervisors in one counselor education program. A whole-text analysis revealed that participants varied in the supervisee characteristics that they considered most important to address during supervisee matching. Supervisee incompatibility also resulted in a variety of positive and negative outcomes for both the supervisees and the supervisor.

Facilitating Effective Triadic Counseling Supervision: An Adapted Model for an Underutilized Supervision Approach

The current standards of accreditation boards, licensure, and certifications or credentialing bodies, such as the Commission on Rehabilitation Counselor Certification (2010), Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (2009), and the National Board for Certified Counselors (2005), promote various types of supervision for counselors-in-training, counselors, and counselor educators. Largely missing from the literature is the concept of triadic supervision, a means of conserving both time and money for the parties involved. The authors overview three supervision approaches (Bordin, 1983; Kleist & Hill, 2003; Schutz, 1958), and present an adaptation of them into one model of triadic supervision. Recommendations for counselor education training and supervision practices, ethical concerns, and evaluation processes are provided.

Supervisee Incompatibility and Its Influence on Triadic Supervision: An Examination of Doctoral Student Supervisors' Perspectives

A qualitative study was conducted to explore supervisors' experiences of supervisee incompatibility in triadic supervision. In‐depth interviews were completed with 9 doctoral student supervisors in a counselor education program, and a whole‐text analysis generated 3 categories. Supervisee incompatibility took a wide variety of forms and negatively affected the content of supervision, including its progress and productivity. It also negatively influenced the process of supervision, including the feedback and support offered by either the supervisor or the supervisees and the general atmosphere of supervision meetings. Implications of the findings for counseling supervision and for further research are also addressed.

Counselor Trainees’ Experiences in Triadic Supervision: A Qualitative Exploration of Transcendent Themes

Triadic supervision has been considered a credible and effective form of clinical supervision within counselor education programs since being included in the 2001 standards for the Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP). A phenomenological study was conducted to examine the experiences of masters-level counselor trainees in practicum with triadic supervision. Several transcendent themes emerged, namely: Initial Apprehensions, Shared Developmental Process, Vicarious Learning, Multiple Perspectives, and Safety through Trust and Relationship. The results of this study are discussed as they impact the field of counselor education and supervision.

Systemic Processes in Triadic Supervision

During a four-year research project that grew out of their teaching and supervision, three counselor educators used a constructivist grounded theory approach to address a gap in the literature on triadic supervision. The authors collaborated with 2 research assistants and 28 research participants to examine triadic supervision through analysis of individual and focus group interviews, observation of videotapes of triadic supervision, and ongoing discussions. Analysis and interpretive theorizing resulted in the identification of the following basic processes present in triadic supervision: systemic engagement, synergy, recursiveness, presence of the supervisor, and community. Description of each process, considerations about use of triadic supervision, and implications for teaching and practice are discussed.

Supervisors' Experiences of the Contributions of the Second Supervisee in Triadic Supervision: A Qualitative Investigation

A qualitative study was conducted to investigate supervisors' experiences of the contributions made by the second supervisee in triadic supervision. In-depth, open-ended interviews were conducted with 6 supervisors in a counselor education program. Participants viewed the second supervisee as a source of valuable information and insights for both the supervisor and the supervision peer and promoted the latter's learning and growth. The second supervisee's presence enhanced certain supervision activities or allowed new activities to be used. The addition of a second supervisee in triadic supervision changes the dynamics from those of individual supervision to something more similar to group supervision.

A Qualitative Investigation of Supervisees' Experiences of Triadic Supervision

Although triadic supervision has existed for some time, few studies have focused on this form of supervision or its effectiveness. In this qualitative study, the experiences of 6 master's‐level students from a counselor education program who participated as supervisees in triadic supervision were explored using in‐depth, open‐ended interviews. The data analysis resulted in 5 major categories, which are discussed. Implications of the findings for clinical supervision and further research are also addressed.

A Model for Using Triadic Supervision in Counselor Preparation Programs

The Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (2001) has approved the use of triadic supervision as an alternative to individual supervision in clinical instruction. However, literature describing this mode of supervision is very limited. A model for triadic supervision is described, including presession planning, in‐session strategies, and administrative considerations and supervisee evaluation. An evaluation of the model from 2 recent studies is also discussed, and recommendations are provided for using triadic supervision in counselor preparation.

A Qualitative Examination of Supervisors' Experiences of the Process of Triadic Supervision

A qualitative study was undertaken to investigate supervisors' experiences of the process of triadic supervision. Data were collected using in-depth, individual interviews with clinical supervisors who were part of a counselor education program. A whole-text analysis yielded two major categories. Triadic supervision enhanced particular feedback dynamics, enhanced supervisee learning and growth, and improved the general atmosphere of supervision. It also impaired particular feedback dynamics and limited supervisors' ability to meet supervisee needs and provide assistance. Implications of the findings for supervision practice and for future research are also addressed.

Co-analysis of work in the triadic supervision of preservice teachers based on neo-Vygotskian activity theory: Case study from a French university institute of teacher training

The goal of this study was to evaluate the effects of the joint training activities of a cooperating teacher and a university supervisor during an advisory visit on (a) the professional development of a preservice teacher's activity and (b) the reorganization of mentoring activity following this visit. The results are considered from a theoretical perspective based on cultural-historical psychology (Leontiev, A. (1984). Activity, consciousness, personality. Moscow: Progress Editions.; Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Interaction between learning and development. In: M. Cole, V. John-Steiner, S. Scribner & E. Souberman (Eds.), Mind in society (pp. 79–91). Cambridge: Harvard University Press.; Vygotsky, L. S. (1997). Thought and language. Paris: La Dispute.; Vygotsky, L. S. (2003). Consciousness, the unconscious, emotions. Paris: La Dispute.) and the clinical study of activity (Clot, Y. (2003). Vygotsky, consciousness as liaison. In: Vygotsky, consciousness, the unconscious, emotions. Paris: La Dispute, pp. 7–59.; Clot, Y. (2004). Work between functioning and development. Bulletin de Psychologie, 57(1), 5–12.; Clot, Y. (2008). Work and the power to act. Paris: PUF.; Clot, Y., & Faïta, D. (2000). Types and styles in work analysis. Concepts and methods. Travailler, 6, 7–43.). The discussion focuses on the conditions that led to the greater effectiveness of the advisory visit, which is an integral part of teacher training programs that alternate classroom work with co-analysis of the work. Proposals are also made for new directions in training supervisors and cooperating teachers with a view to building a training team.

Triadic Supervision and its Impact on the Role of the Supervisor: A Qualitative Examination of Supervisors' Perspectives

Although triadic supervision has been the subject of little empirical research, perspectives of supervisors in this form of supervision have received even less attention. This qualitative study examined 6 doctoral student supervisors' experiences of triadic supervision and the demands it placed on them in their role as supervisors. Data collection involved use of in‐depth, open‐ended interviews, and a whole‐text analysis resulted in 2 major categories. These categories address various ways in which triadic supervision increases or decreases the demands placed on the supervisor. Implications of the findings for supervisory practices and future research are also addressed.