Trench Axis Research Articles

Mapping normal faults on the outer slope of the western Kuril Trench based on recent seismic reflection and bathymetric data

To obtain novel information regarding normal faults that could cause tsunamis and large earthquakes on the outer slopes of the Kuril Trench, recently acquired multichannel seismic reflection (MCS) and bathymetric data are processed in this study to interpret the normal faults on the outer slope of the western Kuril Trench from near the Erimo Seamount to near the Nosappu Fracture Zone. This work also assesses the distribution and characteristics of the faults through comparisons with previous studies on the outer slope faults of the Japan Trench. The results of this study show that faulting starts approximately 100 km seaward of the trench axis, and a comparison with the normal fault distributions on the outer slope of the Japan Trench presented in previous studies reveals that the outer slope region of the Kuril Trench is narrower and more densely faulted than that of the Japan Trench. Additionally, the seismic and bathymetric data show that the Erimo and Takuyo-Daiichi Seamounts are deformed by normal faults. However, the number of faults in the seamount areas is lower than that in areas without them, which also affects the scale of the fault throws. The results of the MCS survey reveal that the thickness of the oceanic crust varies between 6 and 10 km due to the presence of these seamounts. Considering the positions of the outer swells presented in previous studies, the results suggest that the crustal and plate structures in the study area influence the distribution and formation of faults on the outer slope of the Kuril Trench.Graphical

Anisotropic structure at shallow depths across the Japan Trench

Anisotropic structures within the crust are frequently perceived to originate from stress-induced cracks, which have been mainly estimated on land through different wave speeds of orthogonally polarized S waves propagating in the anisotropic media. However, such estimations of crustal anisotropic structures in ocean areas, particularly for subduction zones around trenches, have not been investigated in detail due to the lack of long-term ocean bottom observations. In this study, we used ocean bottom seismometers of a permanent network deployed across the Japan Trench and the southern part of the Kuril Trench and applied the shear-wave splitting analysis to P-to-s converted waves extracted by receiver function analyses using teleseismic events. We estimated the anisotropic structures in marine sediments and oceanic crust for the incoming Pacific Plate and marine sediments for the overriding North American Plate. The obtained fast polarization directions for the incoming plate are mainly oriented to be parallel to the trench axis for the marine sediment and oceanic crust, which are formed by normal faults and cracks due to the upward plate bending in the outer-rise region, whereas results for marine sediments at the northern part of the Japan Trench are obliquely aligned to the trench axis. The oblique direction is consistent with the magnetic lineations of the incoming plate, indicating that ancient faults within the plate, which were formed in the shallow part of the crust during the creation of the oceanic plate at the ridge, are reactivated by the plate flexure. For the overriding plate, the fast polarization directions in the northern and southern parts of the study area are nearly normal to the trench axis. The central part shows two distinct features: the fast polarization directions parallel to the trench axis and small degrees of anisotropy. These patterns may reflect crack alignments associated with the lateral variation in postseismic crustal deformation after the 2011 Tohoku-Oki earthquake. Our results suggest substantial lateral variations in the stress field at the tip of the overriding plate along the strike direction.Graphical

Authentic fault models and dispersive tsunami simulations for outer-rise normal earthquakes in the southern Kuril Trench

The southern Kuril Trench is one of the most seismically active regions in the world. In this study, marine surveys and observations were performed to construct fault models for possible outer-rise earthquakes. Seismic and seafloor bathymetric surveys indicated that the dip angle of the outer-rise fault was approximately 50°–80°, with a strike that was slightly oblique to the axis of the Kuril Trench. The maximum fault length was estimated to be ~ 260 km. Based on these findings, we proposed 17 fault models, with moment magnitudes ranging from 7.2 to 8.4. To numerically simulate tsunami, we solved two-dimensional dispersive wave and three-dimensional Euler equations using the outer-rise fault models. The results of both simulations yielded identical predictions for tsunami with short-wavelength components, resulting in significant dispersive deformations in the open ocean. We also found that tsunami generated by outer-rise earthquakes were affected by refraction and diffraction because of the source location beyond the trench axis. These findings can improve future predictions of tsunami hazards.Graphical

Vp/Vs structure and Pn anisotropy across the Louisville Ridge, seaward of the Tonga-Kermadec Trench

The Pacific Plate within the collision zone between the Louisville Ridge and the Tonga-Kermadec Trench was formed at the Osbourn Trough, a paleo spreading center that became inactive during the Cretaceous. In this region, the trench shallows from a depth of 8–11 km to ∼6 km below sea surface, while the outer rise topography is obscured by Louisville seamounts that rise 4–5 km above the adjacent seafloor. We derive 2-D P-wave (Vp) and S-wave (Vs) velocity-depth models along a wide-angle seismic profile oriented sub-parallel to the trench axis, intersecting the 27.6°S seamount. The seismic profile is located in the down-going Pacific Plate eastwards from the trench axis (∼100 km distant at the south end and ∼ 150 km at the north end), where bending-related faulting is limited or absent. Using the derived P- and S-wave velocity-depth models we calculate the corresponding Vp/Vs ratio model which shows values of 1.7–1.85 throughout the oceanic crust either side of the Louisville Ridge where it is unaffected by magmatism associated with its formation. This range of observations lies within those documented by laboratory measurements on basalt, diabase, and gabbro. Conversely, in the vicinity of the summit of 27.6°S seamount, the relatively elevated Vp/Vs (∼1.9) ratio observed can be attributed to water-saturated cracks within the shallow sub-seabed section of the intrusive core. Beneath the seamount the uppermost mantle has a Vp ranging from 8.0 to 8.9 km/s. Comparing our P-wave model with a pre-existing model running sub-perpendicularly along the Louisville Ridge axis, we observe an anisotropy of up to ∼6% at a depth of 3–4 km below the Moho. The predominant orientation of the faster axis follows the direction of paleo spreading flow when the plate was formed at the Osbourn Trough.

New source model for the 1771 Meiwa tsunami along the southern Ryukyu Trench inferred from high-resolution tsunami calculation

The 1771 Meiwa tsunami which struck the southern Ryukyu Islands (Sakishima Islands) had greater than 22 m run-up height, leaving about 12,000 casualties in its wake. At many places, the tsunami inundation or lack of inundation is well recorded in historical documents. Several tsunami source models have been proposed for this event using historical records as constraints of tsunami calculations. Nevertheless, the source model remains under discussion. This study re-evaluated the tsunami wave source model of the 1771 Meiwa tsunami using high-resolution (10 m mesh) bathymetric and topographical data for tsunami calculation, the latest historical record dataset, and seismological knowledge. Results demonstrated that a tsunami earthquake along the southern Ryukyu Trench was the likely cause of the 1771 event. However, it is noteworthy that assumption of a large slip with 30 m is necessary for a shallow and narrow region (fault depth = 5 km, fault width = 30 km, Mw = 8.49) of the plate boundary in the Ryukyu Trench, which is far larger than previously thought. This requirement of very large initial water level change at the source might involve not only the fault rupture along the plate boundary but also deformation by splay faults, inelastic deformation of unconsolidated sediments near the trench axis, and/or giant submarine landslides. Results also show that the effects of fault parameters on the run-up were quite different depending on the offshore coral reef width. This phenomenon strongly constrained the fault width to 30 km. Our tsunami ray tracing analysis further revealed the effects of bathymetry on tsunami propagation. It is noteworthy that meter-long huge tsunami boulders tend to be distributed along the specific coasts at which the tsunami was concentrated by bathymetric effects. This finding suggests that past tsunamis, including the 1771 event, might have affected the specific coral reefs on Sakishima Islands repeatedly, which is crucially important for understanding the heterogeneous distribution of tsunami boulders. This feature might also be useful to elucidate the effects of large tsunamis on the corals and reefs because a direct comparison of coral reefs that are damaged and not damaged by tsunami waves is testable in narrow areas in the case of the Sakishima Islands.

Hydrothermal Seepage of Altered Crustal Formation Water Seaward of the Middle America Trench, Offshore Costa Rica

AbstractChemical compositions of sediment pore waters are presented from 13 piston and gravity cores that were collected on ∼24 Ma crust of the Cocos Plate seaward of the Middle America Trench and near the onset of crustal faulting from subduction. Cores were collected mainly within a 1.75 km2 area overlying a buried basement topographic high that supports an elevated heat flux, consistent with seawater transport within the upper volcanic crust. Systematic variations in pore water chemical profiles indicate upward seepage speeds (up to 1.7 cm yr−1 providing a net flux of 0.1 L s−1), constrain the chemical composition of the formation water within the underlying upper basaltic basement, and elucidate diagenetic reactions in the sediment. Relative to seawater, formation water has an elevated temperature (70–80°C) and concentrations or values of Ca, chlorinity, Sr, Ba, Li, Fe, Mn, Si, Cs, D/H, and Mo, and lower concentrations or values of Mg, Na, sulfate, alkalinity, TCO2, K, B, F, phosphate, 87Sr/86Sr, δ13C, δ18O, U, and Rb. Although this site is located only 30 km from the trench axis, there is no chemical evidence for subduction‐related hydrologic influences. Instead, the data are explained by a combination of seawater‐basalt reactions within the upper basement and diffusive exchange with overlying sediment, as part of a shallow, ridge‐flank hydrothermal system. It is unclear why this site has an elevated heat flux relative to neighboring crust, but this may result from variations in crustal properties or modification related to flexural faulting outboard of the trench.

Earthquake-enhanced dissolved carbon cycles in ultra-deep ocean sediments

Hadal trenches are unique geological and ecological systems located along subduction zones. Earthquake-triggered turbidites act as efficient transport pathways of organic carbon (OC), yet remineralization and transformation of OC in these systems are not comprehensively understood. Here we measure concentrations and stable- and radiocarbon isotope signatures of dissolved organic and inorganic carbon (DOC, DIC) in the subsurface sediment interstitial water along the Japan Trench axis collected during the IODP Expedition 386. We find accumulation and aging of DOC and DIC in the subsurface sediments, which we interpret as enhanced production of labile dissolved carbon owing to earthquake-triggered turbidites, which supports intensive microbial methanogenesis in the trench sediments. The residual dissolved carbon accumulates in deep subsurface sediments and may continue to fuel the deep biosphere. Tectonic events can therefore enhance carbon accumulation and stimulate carbon transformation in plate convergent trench systems, which may accelerate carbon export into the subduction zones.

Incoming plate structure at the Japan Trench subduction zone revealed in densely spaced reflection seismic profiles

The structure of the incoming plate is an important element that is often considered to be related to the occurrence of great earthquakes in subduction zones. In the Japan Trench, where the 2011 Tohoku earthquake occurred, we collected seismic profiles along survey lines separated by 2–8 km to examine the structural characteristics of the incoming Pacific plate in detail. The average thickness of the incoming sediments was < 500 m along most of the Japan Trench, and it was < 300 m at ~ 38° N, where the large shallow megathrust slip occurred during the 2011 Tohoku earthquake. We mapped bending-related normal faults, including their dip direction and amount of throw. The numbers of eastward (oceanward) and westward (trenchward) dipping normal faults were generally comparable in the Japan Trench. Eastward dipping normal faults were dominant in the northern and southern parts of the Japan Trench, whereas westward dipping normal faults were more numerous in the central part. Graben-fill sediments deposited at the landward edge of the graben were bounded by eastward dipping normal faults. Trench-fill sediments were also observed along the trench axis. The sediment fills locally increased the thickness of the input sediments where they were deposited. The along-axis variation in input sediment and sediment fill distribution, and the variations in normal fault dip direction between the central and other parts of the Japan Trench may correspond to different slip styles along the plate boundary.

Chemistry of springs across the Mariana forearc: Carbon flux from the subducting plate triggered by the lawsonite-to-epidote transition?

Low-chlorinity springs sampled from ten sites on nine serpentinite mud volcanoes show systematic chemical gradients across the outer Mariana forearc that result from progressive devolatilization of the subducting Pacific plate. Sites range from 50 to 90 km from the trench axis corresponding to depths to the top of the plate of ∼15–29 km. Dissolved sulfate, Na/Cl, K, Rb, Cs, and B in the springs all increase regularly with distance from the trench, leached from subducting sediment and altered basalt in response to increasing temperature at depth from ∼80 to 350 °C. Sites nearer the trench have high Ca (up to 76 mmol/kg) and Sr, low alkalinity, and pH 10.7, whereas sites farther from the trench have almost no Ca and Sr, alkalinity (some carbonate but mostly hydroxyl) as high as 69 meq/kg, and pH 12.5. Springs with high alkalinity also have high methane (>44 mmol/kg) that feeds sulfate-reducing archaeal communities in the shallow subsurface and macrofauna at the seafloor. These distal springs form chimneys and crusts of CaCO3, whereas the proximal springs form chimneys of brucite. High alkalinity at the distal sites apparently results from carbonate dissolution at the top of the subducting plate; because serpentinization during ascent generates both high pH and H2, the resulting dissolved carbonate is reduced to methane such that carbonate alkalinity is replaced by hydroxyl alkalinity: 4H2 + HCO3– → CH4 + 2H2O + OH–. This reaction can account for the much higher pH of the distal springs. Chlorinity of the springs varies from 234 to 546 mmol/kg and is related to latitude NS rather than distance from the trench. Distal springs have otherwise similar compositions over this entire range of chlorinity, implying that chloride derives from depth rather than from mixing with seawater within the seamounts themselves. The range in chlorinity can readily be explained by serpentinization at reasonable water/rock mass ratios of 0.2–1.0 if 30–40% of the spring water originates as residual pore water in subducted sediment and basalt rather than as H2O+ of dehydration.The pH, alkalinity, and methane content of the springs increase abruptly, while Ca and Sr decrease, because carbonate dissolution joins dehydration as a major process at the top of the subducting plate at ∼70 km from the trench, where metabasites recovered from the serpentinite mud indicate the transition from lawsonite blueschist facies to epidote blueschist facies also occurs. Replacement of lawsonite by epidote drastically depletes the solution in Ca and shifts the equilibrium toward massive dissolution of subducted carbonate. Fluxes of sulfate, C, Na, K, Rb, Cs, B, Ca, and Sr in the forearc springs represent only a few percent of the amounts subducted, consistent with continued supply at greater depth.

The Impact of the Caroline Ridge Subduction on the Geomorphological Characteristics of Major Landforms in the Yap Subduction Zone

The Caroline Ridge (CR) subduction underneath the Philippine Sea Plate brings complex morphotectonic characteristics to the Yap Subduction Zone (YSZ) compared to other normal intra-oceanic subduction systems. However, due to the relative paucity of precise geomorphological information, the detailed morphotectonic settings of the YSZ remain unclear. Therefore, we combine the latest-released bathymetry, marine geomorphometry techniques, and geophysical information to investigate the geomorphological characteristics of landforms in the YSZ and their inter-relationship with the CR subduction. The Parece Vela Basin displays NE-SW oriented fractures which are believed to be influenced by the subduction of CR in the ESE-WNW direction. The north part of the Yap arc exhibits higher Bouguer anomalies, implying the absence of the overlying normal volcanic arc crust. The arc-ward trench shows abnormal higher slope values and reveals two significant slope breaks. The Yap Trench axis reveals varying water depths with an extraordinarily deep point at around 9000 m. The sea-ward trench slope displays higher slope values than normal and shows the presence of grabens, horsts, and normal faults which indicate the bending of the CR before subduction. The CR subduction is observed to be critical in the formation of significant geomorphological characteristics in the YSZ.

Sediment Accumulation and Carbon Burial in Four Hadal Trench Systems

AbstractHadal trenches are considered to act as depocenters for organic material, although pathways for the material transport and deposition rates are poorly constrained. Here we assess focusing, deposition and accumulation of material and organic carbon in four hadal trench systems underlying different surface ocean productivities; the eutrophic Atacama and Kuril‐Kamchatka trenches, the mesotrophic Kermadec trench and the oligotrophic Mariana Trench. The study is based on the distributions of naturally occurring 210Pbex, 137Cs and total organic carbon from recovered sediment cores and by applying previously quantified benthic mineralization rates. Periods of steady deposition and discreet mass‐wasting deposits were identified from the profiles and the latter were associated with historic recorded seismic events in the respective regions. During periods without mass wasting, the estimated focusing factors along trench axes were elevated, suggesting more or less continuous downslope focusing of material toward the interior of the trenches. The estimated organic carbon deposition rates during these periods exhibited extensive site‐specific variability, but were generally similar to values encountered at much shallower settings such as continental slopes and margins. Organic carbon deposition rates during periods of steady deposition were not mirrored by surface ocean productivity, but appeared confounded by local bathymetry. The inclusion of deposition mediated by mass‐wasting events enhanced the sediment and organic carbon accumulations for the past ∼150 years by up to a factor of ∼4. Thus, due to intensified downslope material focusing and infrequent mass‐wasting events, hadal trenches are important sites for deposition and sequestration of organic carbon in the deep sea.

High Carbon Mineralization Rates in Subseafloor Hadal Sediments—Result of Frequent Mass Wasting

AbstractIn the past 20 years, the exploration of deep ocean trenches has led to spectacular new insights. Even in the deepest canyons, an unusual variety of life and unexpectedly high benthic oxygen consumption rates have been detected while microbial processes below the surface of the hadal seafloor remains largely unknown. The information that exist comes from geophysical measurements, especially related to seismic research, and specific component analyses to estimate the carbon export. In contrast, no information is available on metabolic activities in deeper buried sediments of hadal environment. Here we present the first pore water profiles from 15 up to 11 m long sediment cores recovered during three expeditions to two hadal zones, the Japan Trench and the Atacama Trench. Despite low levels of organic debris, our data reveal that rates of microbial carbon turnover along the trench axes can be similar to those encountered in much shallower and more productive oceanic regions. The extreme sedimentation dynamics, characterized by frequent mass wasting of slope sediments into the trenches, result in effective burial of reactive, microbially available, organic material. Our results document the fueling of the deep hadal biosphere with bioavailable material and thus provide important understanding on the function of deep‐sea trenches and the hadal carbon cycle.

Spatiotemporal Distribution of Shallow Tremors Along the Nankai Trough, Southwest Japan, as Determined From Waveform Amplitudes and Cross‐Correlations

AbstractShallow slow earthquakes in subduction zones are related to spatiotemporal variations of stress on the plate boundary adjacent to a megathrust earthquake. A dense network (DONET) of cabled ocean‐bottom seismometers (OBSs) deployed in the Nankai Trough seismogenic zone, southwest Japan, has enabled real‐time monitoring of tremors. Because the amplitudes of tremor signals are very low, even when recorded by OBSs, we developed a hybrid method that simultaneously uses traveltimes based on cross‐correlations and amplitudes of waveforms to determine tremor hypocenters. We applied our method to waveforms observed during five years of continuous DONET recording from April 2016 to September 2021 to detect more than 6,500 tremors, including three major episodes in 2016, 2018, and 2020–2021. The tremors of each episode were distributed over distances of &gt;100 km along the trench axis in two regions, southeast of the Kii Peninsula and off Cape Muroto. We also estimated seismic energy rates and found that for the three major tremor episodes, energy rates increased gradually with time. The 2018 and 2020–2021 episodes began near a subducted seamount and a subducted ridge, respectively, and were likely related to fluid movements controlled by the topography of the downgoing plate. We showed that the tremors were spatiotemporally synchronized with slow slip events, and their spatial variations of energy rate corresponded to stress heterogeneity on the shallow plate boundary. Future real‐time monitoring of shallow tremors will contribute to our understanding of changes of stress state due to slow earthquakes at the shallow plate boundary.

Fluid-rock interactions at shallow depths in subduction zone: Insights from trace elements and B isotopic composition of metabasites from the Mariana forearc

To reveal the spatial variations of slab-derived fluids and to trace the in-situ dehydration in the shallow subduction zone, we investigated the petrography, mineral chemistry, and whole-rock B isotopes of metabasites that were recovered from the Fantangisña and Asùt Tesoru serpentinite mud volcanoes and originated from the shallow subduction channel at the forearc of the Mariana subduction zone. The alteration mineral assemblages in the investigated metabasites suggest zeolite- to prehnite-pumpellyite-facies metamorphism and lawsonite-blueschist facies metamorphism beneath Fantangisña and Asùt Tesoru seamounts, respectively. The fluid mobile elements (e.g., B, As, Sb, Pb) are preserved in the low grade metamorphic phyllosilicate minerals (e.g., glauconite, pumpellyite, celadonite), thus fixing the B concentrations of the subducted oceanic crust during shallow subduction (<18 km). Both B concentrations (16.7 to 43.9 μg/g) and δ 11 B values (−5.0 to +3.2‰) of the investigated metabasites are significantly higher than fresh normal mid-ocean ridge basalts (N-MORB) and ocean island basalts (OIB), and are generally comparable to the uppermost altered oceanic slab. Notably, the recovered metabasites from the Mariana forearc exhibit a decreasing trend in δ 11 B values with increasing distance to the trench from Fantangisña (62 km) through Asùt Tesoru (72 km) to South Chamorro (78 km) Seamounts. This trend together with Rayleigh dehydration modeling indicate that the 11 B-enriched aqueous fluids were released from the subducting slab during prograde metamorphic dehydration. The estimated B isotopic compositions of the slab-derived fluids released at arc magma genesis depths are generally comparable to that of the Mariana arc lavas. However, the fluids released by dehydration of subducted sediments at shallow depths should be characterized by lower δ 11 B values than fluids released from the slab at depths of magma genesis beneath the island arc. Then, the recycling of the hydrated forearc mantle is necessary to explain the high δ 11 B values of the Mariana arc lavas. While, the variable B isotope compositions of Mariana arc lavas should be controlled by the different ratios of sediment/AOC ratios. • The investigated metabasites experienced low-grade metamorphism. • Both B concentrations and δ 11 B values are significantly higher than their protolith. • δ 11 B values exhibit a decreasing trend with increasing distance to the trench axis. • Subducted serpentine is necessary to explain the high δ 11 B values of the arc lavas.

Active Silica Diagenesis in the Deepest Hadal Trench Sediments

AbstractPorewater dissolved silicic acid (DSi) concentrations and stable Si isotope compositions (δ30Si) together with biogenic silica (bSiO2) contents of sediments in five sediment cores collected from the southern Mariana Trench are presented. These data suggest the occurrence of bSiO2 dissolution and concomitant authigenic clay formation in three bSiO2‐bearing cores. A reaction‐transport model constrained by the measured geochemical data was applied to quantify the rates of Si turnover. Model results predicted the greatest rates of both bSiO2 dissolution and authigenic clay formation at the trench axis core that displayed low bSiO2 contents and abundant detrital materials, suggesting that detrital materials may be a limiting factor for bSiO2 diagenesis. Model results further predicted that ∼40%–70% of DSi generated by bSiO2 dissolution is consumed by authigenic clay formation. This is the first study that demonstrates active silica diagenesis in the hadal realm and has implications for understanding benthic Si cycling in deep‐sea settings.

Seismic imaging of subsurface structural variations along the Japan trench south of the 2011 Tohoku earthquake rupture zone

The coseismic slip during the 2011 Tohoku earthquake has been revealed to reach the Japan trench axis, but the detailed slip behaviors in different zones along the trench remain an unsolved problem. To investigate the along-trench structures that directly affect the coseismic activities, we collected densely distributed seismic reflection data south of the major coseismic slip zone in the region of 36–37.5°N. Our seismic data document numerous local structural variations along different segments of the study zone: varying thicknesses of incoming sediments; chaotic structures in the north and fold-and-thrust belts in the south at the wedge front; different morphologies of the subducting plate, correlating with the physical properties above the plate interface and influencing, in turn, shallow megathrust slip and tsunami genesis. The southern limit of the 2011 event large coseismic rupture zone at ∼37°N works as a transition zone, which appears to correlate with the landward extension of a subducting channel in the deep places, and the shallower detachment fault structures in the graben beneath the trench axis that are less developed than those in the large slip zone further north. It also appears to correlate with the different elastic properties along the basal layer of the overriding plate caused by regionally various thickness and lithologies.

Short-wave run-ups of the 1611 Keicho tsunami along the Sanriku Coast

A tsunami generated by an earthquake that occurred off the east coast of Japan in 1611 was predominantly concentrated along the Sanriku Coast. The 1611 event produced its greatest observed tsunami height at Koyadori, 28.8 m, higher than that produced by other representative tsunamis at the same location such as the 2011 Tohoku and 1896 Meiji Sanriku tsunamis. The characteristics of the source that resulted in the remarkable tsunami height at Koyadori have been widely debated. In this study, we simulated the local intensification mechanism of the 1611 tsunami and derived some key characteristics of the earthquake that produced the intensification at Koyadori based on these results. First, we investigated the topographical inundation characteristics in representative areas on the Sanriku Coast, including Koyadori, by numerical means. By comparing the numerical results with the observed heights for the 1611 tsunami, we found that a simulated tsunami that was dominated by short-wave components yielded a promising reproduction of the observed heights. The development of a local resonance seemed a more likely cause for the observed local intensification at Koyadori than a single-pulse wave. These results suggested that the 1611 earthquake produced a tsunami dominated by short-wave components. Furthermore, the source must have been located far off the Tohoku coast near the Japan Trench axis to have had substantial short-wave components along the Sanriku Coast. Based on these findings, we constructed a source scenario for local intensification by investigating the characteristics of Green’s functions from single-point sources. The scenario involves two separate earthquake sources in shallow crustal areas at the plate interface of the subduction zone, resulting in a moment magnitude of 8.5. The tsunami produced by this source model, which reflected the characteristics of a tsunami earthquake, effectively reproduced the local intensification observed on the Sanriku Coast.

The Moho, slab and tomography of the East Japan forearc derived from seafloor S-net data

We investigate the 3-D P and S wave velocity structure of the East Japan forearc using a large number of high-quality arrival-time data of local earthquakes recorded by a permanent seafloor seismic network (S-net) and the land-based Kiban seismic network. Geometries of the subducting slab boundary and the Conrad and Moho discontinuities under the forearc are refined by referring to results of previous studies including active-source seismic soundings and seismicity located by the S-net. The obtained P and S wave velocity images are quite similar to each other, suggesting that they reflect robust features of the 3-D seismic structure. The subducting Pacific slab exhibits high velocities, whereas significant low-velocity (low-V) anomalies are revealed in the overlying Okhotsk plate beneath the forearc, which may reflect accretionary materials containing abundant fluids. The subducting oceanic crust atop the Pacific slab is revealed clearly as a thin low-V layer extending from the trench axis down to ~100 km depth under the volcanic front. Our results of earthquake relocation using the 3-D velocity model indicate that the double seismic zone in the subducting Pacific slab occurs from the trench axis down to ~180 km depth. The occurrence and focal mechanisms of the double seismic zone are caused by slab deformation during its subduction, such as slab bending or unbending, as well as other processes including hydration, dehydration, compositional variations, and phase changes in the subducting slab.

The role of flat slab subduction, ridge subduction, and tectonic inheritance in Andean deformation

AbstractConvergent plate boundaries show sharp variations in orogenic width and extent of intraplate deformation. Analysis of late Cenozoic contractile deformation along the Andean mountain front and adjacent foreland highlights the contrasting degrees of deformation advance toward the plate interior. The retroarc positions of the Andean topographic front (marked by frontal thrust-belt structures) and foreland deformation front (defined by isolated basement block uplifts) range from 300 to 900 km inboard of the trench axis. Over the ~8000 km arcuate length of the Andes (10°N to 55°S), four discrete maxima of inboard deformation advance are spatially co-located with the Peruvian (5°S–14°S) and Pampean (27°S–33°S) zones of flat slab subduction, the subducted Chile Ridge (45°S–48°S), and the anomalously thick Paleozoic stratigraphic wedge of Bolivia (17°S –23°S). The spatial correspondence of retroarc shortening with specific geodynamic configurations demonstrates the mechanical role of flat slab subduction, slab window development, and combined structural and stratigraphic geometries in shaping the orogenic architecture of Cordilleran margins, largely through lithospheric strengthening, weakening, and/or tectonic inheritance.

Intra- and inter-spatial variability of meiofauna in hadal trenches is linked to microbial activity and food availability

Hadal trenches are depocenters for organic material, and host intensified benthic microbial activity. The enhanced deposition is presumed to be reflected in elevated meiofaunal standing-stock, but available studies are ambiguous. Here, we investigate the distribution of meiofauna along the Atacama Trench axis and adjacent abyssal and bathyal settings in order to relate the meiofauna densities to proxies for food availability. Meiofauna densities peaked at the sediment surface and attenuated steeply with increasing sediment depth. The distribution mirrored the vertical profile of the microbial-driven oxygen consumption rate demonstrating a close linkage between microbial activity and meiofauna density. Meiofaunal standing-stock along the trench axis varied by a factor of two, but were markedly higher than values from the abyssal site at the oceanic plate. Overall, meiofaunal densities poorly correlated with common proxies for food availability such as total organic carbon and phytopigments, but strongly correlated with the microbial benthic O2 consumption rate. We argue that microbial biomass likely represents an important meiofaunal food source for hadal meiofauna. Observations from three trench systems underlying surface water of highly different productivity confirmed elevated meiofaunal densities at the trench axis as compared to abyssal sites on oceanic plates. Food availability appear to drive elevated abundance and variations in meiofauna densities in hadal sediments.