Passer Montanus Research Articles

A comparison of flight energetics and kinematics of migratory Brambling and residential Eurasian Tree Sparrow

BackgroundUnlike resident birds, migratory birds are generally believed to have evolved to enhance flight efficiency; however, direct evidence is still scarce due to the difficulty of measuring the flight speed and mechanical power.MethodsWe studied the differences in morphology, flight kinematics, and energy cost between two passerines with comparable size, a migrant (Fringilla montifringilla, Brambling, BRAM), and a resident (Passer montanus, Eurasian Tree Sparrow, TRSP).ResultsThe BRAM had longer wings, higher aspect ratio, lower wingbeat frequency, and stroke amplitude compared to the TRSP despite the two species had a comparable body mass. The BRAM had a significantly lower maximum speed, lower power at any specific speed, and thus lower flight energy cost in relative to the TRSP although the two species had a comparable maximum vertical speed and acceleration.ConclusionsOur results suggest that adaptation for migration may have led to reduced power output and maximum speed to increase energy efficiency for migratory flight while residents increase flight speed and speed range adapting to diverse habitats.

Паразитические насекомые в гнездах Passer domesticus (linnaeus, 1758) и P. Montanus (linnaeus, 1758) (aves: passeriformes) в г. Воронеже

In Voronezh, 14 species of parasitic insects were found in sparrows and their nests during 2017–2020. It was found 6 species of chewing lice: Menacanthus eurysternus Giebel, 1874, Ricinus fringillae De Geer, 1778, Sturnidoecus ruficeps Giebel, 1866, Brueelia subtilis Giebel, 1874, B. borini Lunkaschu, 1970, and Philopterus montani Zlotorzycka, 1964. Among them, Menacanthus eurysternus was the dominant species for the House Sparrow (dominance 21.70 %, prevalence 10.00) while B. subtilis (dominance 18.60 %, prevalence 8.00) and B. borini (dominance 16.29 %, prevalence 6.00) were subdominant. For the European Tree Sparrow, the dominant species were B. borini (dominance 22.07 %, prevalence 8.00) and Ph. montani (dominance 22.07 %, prevalence 10.6). All six chewing lice species were observed for the first time in Voronezh and the Central Black Soil Region of Russia. Three species of fleas – Ceratophillus gallinae (Schrank, 1803), C. fringillae Walker, 1856, and C. tribulus Jordan, 1926) – were registered. The dominant flea species was C. gallinae (for the House Sparrow, dominance was 67.13 %, prevalence 45.00; for the Tree Sparrow, dominance was 66.47 %, prevalence 73.33). Abundance of fleas for House Sparrow nestlings was 0.724, and 1.153 for Tree Sparrow nestlings. Parasitic flies were represented by five species: Ornithomya avicularia (Linnaeus, 1758), O. fringillina Curtis, 1836, O. chloropus Bergroth 1901 (Hippoboscidae), Protocalliphora azurea Fll., 1817, and Trypocalliphora braueri (Hendel, 1901) (Calliphoridae). Among louse flies O. avicularia was the dominant species (for House sparrow, dominance was 85.93 %, prevalence 53.00; for Tree Sparrow, dominance was 68.64 %, prevalence 20.00). Larvae of P. azurea were found in 13.00 % of House Sparrow nests and in 15.00 % of Tree Sparrow nests. For House Sparrow nestlings, intensity was 3.42 % with abundance 0.30, while for Tree Sparrow nestlings, intensity was 0.15 % with abundance 2.05. Larvae of T. braueri were found in 31.00 % of House Sparrow nests and in 40.00 % of Tree Sparrow nests. For House Sparrow nestlings, intensity was 0.164 with abundance 0.088. For Tree Sparrow nestlings, intensity was 0.106 with abundance 0.220. Significant fluctuations of prevalence and abundance of the larvae in different years were found.

Continental island effect in Sichuan Basin based on the genetic structure of sparrow

Abstract Islands are ideal settings for the study of evolution, ecology and genetic diversity. The tree sparrow (Passer montanus), which is distributed both inside and outside the Sichuan Basin and is relatively easy to capture, was used as our study species to test whether any genetic differences exist between within and outside of the Sichuan Basin. We analyzed mitochondrial and nuclear gene sequence variations to illustrate the continental island effect within the Sichuan Basin. Overall, fragments from four mtDNA and one nuclear sequence (Cytb + COI + 12S rRNA + Dloop + Myo) were amplified, with the concatenated alignment comprising 3234 bp. The results of Bayesian and maximum parsimony trees indicated two major branches, one of which is composed mainly of populations within the Sichuan Basin, while the other comprised populations distributed in the surrounding mountains. The population in Sichuan Basin was more basal than that in the surrounding mountains. The genetic distance between inner and outer populations was 0.095 and genetic differentiation index (FST) between inner and outer populations was 0.342. This study shows that the overall distribution pattern of tree sparrow populations in the Sichuan Basin and its surrounding mountains is probably the result of a vicariance event due to spatial isolation.

Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Thyroid Axis Crosstalk With the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Gonadal Axis and Metabolic Regulation in the Eurasian Tree Sparrow During Mating and Non-mating Periods.

Reproduction is an energetically costly phenomenon. Therefore, to optimize reproductive success, male birds invest enough energetic resources for maintaining well-developed testes. The hypothalamic–pituitary–thyroid (HPT) axis in birds can crosstalk with the hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal (HPG) axis, thus orchestrating both the reproduction and metabolism. However, until now, how the free-living birds timely optimize both the energy metabolism and reproduction via HPT-axis is not understood. To uncover this physiological mechanism, we investigated the relationships among body mass, testis size, plasma hormones including thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), thyroxine (T4), triiodothyronine (T3), metabolites including glucose (Glu), triglyceride (TG), total cholesterol (TC), uric acid (UA), diencephalon mRNA expressions of type 2 (Dio2) and 3 (Dio3) iodothyronine deiodinase enzymes, thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), gonadotropin-releasing hormone I (GnRH-I), and gonadotropin-inhibitory hormone (GnIH) in a male Eurasian tree sparrow (ETS, Passer montanus). We found significantly larger testis size; elevated diencephalon Dio2 and TRH mRNA expressions, plasma T3, and UA levels; and significantly lowered Glu, TG, and TC levels during mating relative to the non-mating stages in male ETSs. However, Dio3, TSH, GnRH-I, and GnIH mRNA expression did not vary with the stage. Furthermore, life-history stage dependent variation in plasma T3 had both direct effects on the available energy substrates and indirect effects on body mass and testis size, indicating a complex regulation of metabolic pathways through the HPT- and HPG-axes. The identified differences and relationships in mRNA expression, plasma T3 and metabolites, and testis size in male ETSs contribute to our understanding how free-living birds adjust their molecular, endocrinal, and biochemical features to orchestrate their reproductive physiology and metabolism for the maintenance of well-developed testes.

Habitat use during post-pre-breeding period in a Rock Sparrow <em>Petronia petronia</em> population

Most studies focusing on Rock Sparrow populations concern their breeding biology. With this study, we aim to investigate the wintering habitat and social behaviour outside the breeding period. In the study area the species is present all year long, and, outside the breeding period, birds frequently gather together on flocks of different size (3-150 individuals), which are larger in the coldest months. The habitat types most used by the species were cereal fields with crops in their first stage of development (17.71% ± 4.72 Standard Deviation) and arable stubbles, both of them with bushes and trees on their boundaries (82.4%), which likely provide shelters from predators. The bird species most frequently associated with Rock Sparrow flocks were Tree Sparrow, Starling and Crested Lark. Holes in the roof tiles of the same abandoned buildings used for breeding were also used as night shelters. The average hours of leaving and returning to the shelters was strictly related to the photoperiod (rs = -0.9405; 0.8810).

Variation in sperm morphology and performance in tree sparrow (Passer montanus) under long-term environmental heavy metal pollution.

Sperm morphology and performance traits are key determinants of male fertilization success, particularly when females copulate with multiple males. Such sperm traits have been reported to be influenced by environmental pollutants in various animals; however, such studies remain rare in free-living birds exposed to heavy metal pollution. In the present study, we selected tree sparrow (Passer montanus) as the study object to explore the effect of long-term environmental heavy metal pollution on sperm morphology (assessed mainly by using the dimensions of different sperm components and the sperm abnormality rates) and sperm performance (indicated by sperm velocity), and to elucidate potential relationships between variations in sperm morphology and performance. Sperm ATP concentration was also assessed considering sperm morphology and performance could be linked via energy availability. According to our results, tree sparrows from heavy metal polluted area (1) accumulated cadmium at a higher level in their testes; (2) produced longer sperm with lower abnormality rates, in addition to sperm with longer flagella and smaller head/flagellum ratios; (3) their sperm swam faster compared to those from the relatively unpolluted area, while no differences were observed in sperm ATP concentrations. We also found that the levels of lead and cadmium in testes affected the sperm nucleus length, and the level of copper in testes was negatively related to the proportions of abnormal sperm. Furthermore, the present study showed that sperm velocity was negatively correlated with sperm head lengths, head/flagellum ratios and ATP concentrations. Our study results reveal that sperm morphology and performance in tree sparrows show positive variations to maximize male fertility ability under long-term environmental heavy metal pollution, where males increase sperm flagellum lengths to decrease head/flagellum ratios, as opposed to varying sperm energy production, to achieve higher sperm velocity.

JENIS BURUNG DI KAMPUS UNIVERSITAS TANJUNGPURA

Quality degradation, modification, and habitat loss are significant threats to bird species. The natural habitat of birds has been modified into residential land and facilities to meet the needs of human life as happened at Tanjungpura University. This study aims to determine of birds species at Tanjungpura University. Observations were carried out from January to March 2019. The method used in collecting the data from bird was “Encounter rates” which was conducted in the morning starting at 6 – 9 am and at 3 - 6 pm. The data obtained were analyzed with the formula of simple abundance scale and frequency of attendance. The birds found at Universitas Tanjungpura are 28 species classified into 23 genera, 17 families, and seven orders. Birds found to have an abundance order scale are classified into abundant, general, frequent and, unusual categories. Birds included in the abundant category are Collocalia fuciphaga and Passer montanus. The types of bird foods at Tanjungpura University consist of frugivore, insectivore, granivore, herbivore, carnivore, piscivore, omnivore, molluscivore, and nectarivore. The value of attendance frequency have range between 10-100%. The bird species with highest frequency of attendance’s value is Passer montanus, Pycnonotus aurigaster, Pycnonotus goiavier, Collocalia fuciphaga, and Anthreptes malacensis.

Variation in genetic diversity of tree sparrow (Passer montanus) population in long-term environmental heavy metal polluted areas

Genetic diversity is the bedrock of evolution. The “Genetic Erosion” hypothesis posits that environmental pollution could cause reduced genetic diversity. To explore the effects of heavy metal pollution on genetic diversity in natural populations, we selected an area with more than sixty years of heavy metal contamination (Baiyin, BY) and a relatively unpolluted one (Liujiaxia, LJX), and tree sparrow (Passer montanus) as study models. Five tree sparrow populations were sampled in BY at sites differing in heavy metal pollution level. Lower genetic diversity based on seven microsatellite loci was observed in the five tree sparrow populations from BY compared with those from LJX. Analysis of molecular variance indicated no significant genetic differentiation between BY and LJX. However, the observed heterozygosity and allelic richness were negatively correlated to the lead and cadmium concentrations in the primary feathers of tree sparrow. Our results indicated the genetic diversity might have a negative response to long-term environmental heavy metal pollution in tree sparrow, supporting the “Genetic Erosion” hypothesis. Therefore, the findings shed lights on the possible effects of heavy metal pollution on genetic diversity of wild bird populations.

Effects of environmental metal pollution on reproduction of a free-living resident songbird, the tree sparrow (Passer montanus)

Anthropogenic metal pollution is known to adversely affect bird reproduction; however, few systematic studies are available on the effects of metal pollution on breeding performance and parental investment in a common resident songbird, the tree sparrow (Passer montanus). We conducted this study in two sites, a long-term heavy metal polluted site (Baiyin [BY]) and a relatively unpolluted site at approximately 110 km distance (Liujiaxia [LJX]), to assess the potential effects of environmental metal contamination on breeding parameters (clutch size, hatching success, fledging success, and growth of nestlings) and parental investment. The results showed smaller clutch size, lower fledging success, and differences in incubation behaviors of tree sparrows in BY than in LJX. Although there was no difference in parental body condition (residual body mass) between the two study sites, the parents responded differently with respect to reproduction due to varying metal levels in their habitats and bodies. Higher Cd levels in the primary feathers of females in BY were associated with lower clutch sizes. Parental investment including incubation duration and feeding rates showed no significant difference between the two sites during the incubation and nestling periods, but the frequencies of incubation visits were higher in BY. Parental behavior during the incubation period was also negatively affected by the parental Pb and Cd levels. Although the nestling growth patterns were relatively similar between the two sites, the nestlings were smaller, had lower body weight, and fledged later and fledging rate was also lower in BY than in LJX. Metal concentrations were higher in nestling organs and feces in BY. Taken together, metal pollution might adversely affect nestling growth condition. Our results suggest a negative response in the reproduction of tree sparrows to long-term environmental metal pollution.

Circadian versus circannual rhythm in the photoperiodic programming of seasonal responses in Eurasian tree sparrow (Passer montanus).

Experiments were performed on the subtropical tree sparrow (Passer montanus) to investigate whether day length, as a proximate factor, involves circadian rhythm in timing seasonal responses or these events are programmed by the mediation of an endogenous circannual rhythm. The experiments began from the two equinoxes, i.e. March and September, and continued for about 18 months. In each equinox, one group of wild birds of both sex was exposed to near simulated day length as it varies in nature at Shillong (Latitude 25°34'N, Longitude 91°53'E), and the other group was given a photoperiodic treatment in the reverse order corresponding to natural variation in day length from the other equinox. The birds exposed to near simulated day lengths in March and September showed gonadal, bill colour and molting responses, as observed in the wild birds in nature. Moreover, when photosensitive birds of March were given photoperiodic treatment in the reverse order (i.e., natural variation in day lengths beginning from September), they maintained their photosensitivity and responded only when they received increasing day length in the following September. However, when the photorefractory birds of September were exposed to reverse photoperiodic treatment (i.e. natural day length as it varies from March), they terminated their photorefractoriness after receiving decreasing day length in March the next year and responded when they again received increasing day length in the following September. These results strongly suggest that photoperiodic regulation of seasonal responses in the tree sparrow involves an endogenous circadian rhythm and exclude the possibility of circannual rhythm generation.

Applying a socio-ecological green network framework to Xi\u2019an City, China

Green–blue space loss and fragmentation are particularly acute in Chinese cities due to rapid urbanization, large ring-road system and the following city compartments. Therefore, connecting urban green–blue spaces has been recently advocated by central government. This paper revised and applied the recently developed urban green network approach to the case of Xi’an city, China, a city which has been rarely studied before from this perspective. The focus was on connecting fragments of urban green–blue spaces to compact green–blue networks, integrating both social and ecological functions into a fully functioning entity. Landscape metric analysis was added to identify that the main city outside the city core should be a planning priority zone. The Eurasian tree sparrow (Passer montanus), Asiatic toad (Bufo gargarizans) and humans at leisure were selected as three focal species to meet the emerged socio-ecological benefits. Sociotope and biotope maps were drawn up to identify patches with high human recreation and wildlife shelter values and providing crucial network structures. Least-cost-path model was used for identifying potential linkages between patches. This model was based on network structures and cost surface, which measures the theoretical energy cost of travelling between landscape elements. By integrating the potential paths for the selected organisms with density analysis, the updated framework generated three improvement maps for species indicators, and 10 network corridors for establishing green–blue networks at city scale. At neighbourhood scale, one site with habitat and linkage examples illustrated specific measures that could be taken in local practice.

Synurbic avian species in Greater Jakarta Area, Indonesia

The objective of this study is to reveal birds found in Greater Jakarta Area, and categorize the bird based on the probability of encounter, namely urban exploiters, adapters, and avoiders. Bird list of 36 sites in Greater Jakarta Area collected by other workers in the last seven years were used as the basis of determination. Percentiles were used as cut off points for each category. Of the 243 bird species found the study area, there were 8 species categorized as urban exploiters and the 3 highest ranks were the Sooty-headed Bulbul, Cave Swiftlets and Eurasian Tree Sparrow. Forty-nine bird species were categorized as urban adapters. The rest of species, which constitute a big portion of the species spotted in the Greater Jakarta (186 species, 76.5%) were categorized into urban avoiders. The nocturnal species was represented only by Black-crowned Night-heron. The presence of species exploiters and adapters showed that (a) Greater Jakarta Area still have sufficient green open spaces, including significant numbers of mature and decayed trees; (b) there were still good quality of small rivers, creeks, and swampy area; (c) small mammals were sufficient to support small raptors, and (d) bird community was quite rich to perform brood parasitism habit.

Some vertebrate prey of Barn Owls Tyto alba sumbaensis on Sumba and Rote, Indonesia

The diet of the Barn Owl Tyto alba sumbaensis is little known in Wallacea. Samples of pellets from nests in a church in an urban setting on Sumba and in a forested, limestone cliff setting near Nembrala (Nemberala) on the small island of Rote (Roti), off Timor, were collected in July 2001 and July 2002, respectively. The Sumba sample contained the remains of rodents (three Black Rats Rattus rattus , four Pacific Rats R. exulans and one probable House Mouse Mus musculus ) and birds (17 Eurasian Tree Sparrows Passer montanus ). The sample from Rote contained the remains of 30 small fruit-bats (24 Geoffroy’s Rousettes Rousettus amplexicaudatus and six that were probably also this species).

Distribution Characteristics of Eurasian tree sparrow in the City–On 6 metropolitan cities (Incheon, Daejeon, Daegu, Gwangju, Ulsan, Busan)

Eurasian tree sparrow data from the 4th National Ecosystem Survey (2014 ~ 2018) were used for sparrows, which are known to decrease by about one third over 40 years. Data on altitude and land type among GIS factors in the Eurasian tree sparrow Recorded 6 Metropolitan City(Incheon, Daejeon, Daegu, Gwangju, Ulsan, Busan) of Republic of Korea were generated. As a result, altitudes and land types were generated for 578 Eurasian tree sparrow.

Impact of agricultural crop type and hunting on bird communities of two villages in Bandung, West Java, Indonesia

Abstract. Hakim L, Abdoellah OS, Parikesit, Withaningsih S. 2020. Impact of agricultural crop type and hunting on bird communities of two villages in Bandung, West Java, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 21: 57-66. Land use change has occurred in the Upper Citarum Watershed over time, converting tropical rain-forest to man-made cash-crop gardens dominate the agricultural landscape, leaving mixed-garden (talun), rice fields and smallholder plantation. This changes species composition, community structure and animal diversity, especially bird species. The objective of this paper was to study bird structure community in rural agricultural landscape in Upper Citarum Watershed. We conducted the survey from February to March 2018. We surveyed birds at 36 point counts (PCs), each PC's surveyed six times for 15 minutes along total 6 km of transects in the agricultural landscape in Sukapura and Resmi Tingal Village, consisting of 12 PCs in mixed-garden, 12 PCs in homegarden and 12 PCs in cash-crop garden. Twenty-nine bird species, 17 families and 1.103 individuals were recorded; 2 species being protected by Indonesian law in all sites, three Javan Island endemics and one species migrant bird species. The insectivorous birds are dominant with 15 species in all land-use types. Passer montanus and Javan munia were the most common birds in all land-use types with 820 of 1.103 individual birds (74,9%) were of two bird species. Mixed-garden had higher bird diversity, species richness, and evenness index than the homegarden and cash-crops garden because of the complexity of vegetation structure and canopy cover stratification. There was a significant decrease in some bird species which in the previous study was dominant to be reduced even to local extinctions such as Oriental White-eye (Zosterops palpebrosus), Crescent-chested Babbler (Stachyris melanothorax) and Western Yellow Wagtail (Motacilla flava). Decreased bamboo-tree garden as Crescent-chested Babbler habitat is suspected to be the cause of declination of this bird population. In addition, unregulated bird hunting is also one of the causes of the declining bird populations, especially birds with market value. Some species such as Oriental White-eye (Zosterops palpebrosus), Sooty-headed Bulbul (Pycnonotus aurigaster), Great Tit (Parus major), Bar-winged prinia (Prinia familiaris), Javan myna (Acridotheres javanicus) and Spotted dove (Streptopelia chinensis) have rapidly decreased population because of bird hunting activities.

Cases of occasional interspecific brood parasitism and egg dumping in Hungary

Abstract There are numerous publications in the ornithological literature on mixed-species broods, i.e. on cases when a species lays some or all of its eggs into the nests of other species. This phenomenon, known as brood parasitism, has not yet been studied in Hungary. Here, I use the term brood parasitism, but I could not separate cases of egg dumping, a reproductive error by females. Based on literature and my own observations, I found evidence for interspecific brood parasitism in 28 species breeding in Hungary, not including the cases of the obligate interspecific brood parasite, the Common Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus). Only one of these belongs to passerines, while in the rest of the cases, this phenomenon occurred in representatives of non-passerine families. However, cases of brood parasitism and nest parasitism have to be treated separately. The latter refers to cases when a species occupies a nest, usually a nesthole or nestbox, already containing eggs of another species, and lays its own eggs next to the foreign eggs. The present study provides data on European Roller (Coracias garrulus), Northern Goshawk (Accipiter gentilis), Common Kestrel (Falco tinnunculus), Red-footed Falcon (Falco vespertinus), Eurasian Hobby (Falco subbuteo), tit species (Parus, Cyanistes, Poecile spp.), Eurasian Nuthatch (Sitta europaea) and Eurasian Tree Sparrow (Passer montanus), but in all likelihood the number of species involved is much higher.

Jenis-jenis Burung di Daerah Pasui Kecamatan Buntu Batu Kabupaten Enrekang

<p><em>Bi</em><em>r</em><em>d</em><em>s are living organisms classified into the Kingdom Animalia, phylum Aves and including organisms that possess similar characteristics </em><em>wi</em><em>t</em><em>h body cover </em><em>i</em><em>n the form of feathers and can fly. The aim of this study was to determine the diversity of bird species found in Pasui Village, Buntu Batu District, Enrekang Regency. This research was conducted at Pasui watershed. Birdwatching is done by cruising method at three different stations. The results of this study found 14 bird species classified into 5 orders, 11 families and 13 genera. The bird species obtained are </em><em>Ha</em><em>liastur indus, Collocalia esculenta, Egretta alba, Chalcophaps indica longirostris, Streptopelia chinensin, Corvus enca, Dicaeum aureolimbatum, Eruthrura hyperythra, Lonchura Malacca, Lonchura punctulata, Passer montanus, Pycnonotus aurigaster, Acridontheres javanicus, Zosterops pelpepbrosus.</em></p>

Avifauna Di Desa Makmur Jaya, Kecamatan Tikke Raya, Kabupaten Pasangkayu, Provinsi Sulawesi Barat

Biodiversity is a component that is sensitive to changes in land use. Birds are an avifauna found in almost every place and have an important position as one of Indonesia's animal wealth. The high level of biodiversity is not supported by data and information about its distribution, the taxonomy is still limited and not well documented. Based on this, it is necessary to explore the distribution of birds in various regions, so that they can be collected in a database to support the bioconservation program. Therefore, this research needs to be done to determine the type of avifauna in Makmur Jaya Village, Tikke Raya District, Pasangkayu Regency, West Sulawesi Province. The research was in the form of exploration by observing and recording the species of birds found. Based on the research found 23 types of avifauna in Makmur Jaya Village, Tikke Raya District, Pasangkayu Regency, West Sulawesi Province, namely: Alcedo atthis, Aythya australis, Rhyticeros cassidix, Chalcophaps stephani, Streptopelia chinensis, Macropygia amboinensis albicapilla, Corvus enca, Turacoena manadensis, Phaenicophaeus calyorhynchus, Dicrurus hottentottus, Todiramphus chloris, Hirundo tahitica, Aethopyga siparaja, Nectarinia jugularis, Passer montanus, Gallus gallus, Loriculus stigmatus, Pycnonotus aurigaster, Gallirallus torquatus, Ninox punctulata, Phylloscopus sarasinorum, and Bubulbus ibis.

Limits to load-lifting performance in a passerine bird: the effects of intraspecific variation in morphological and kinematic parameters.

Although more massive flight muscles along with larger wings, higher wingbeat frequencies and greater stroke amplitudes enhance force and power production in flapping flight, the extent to which these parameters may be correlated with other morphological features relevant to flight physiology and biomechanics remains unclear. Intraspecifically, we hypothesized that greater vertical load-lifting capacity would correlate with higher wingbeat frequencies and relatively more massive flight muscles, along with relatively bigger hearts, lungs, and stomachs to enhance metabolic capacity and energy supply, but also with smaller body size given the overall negative allometric dependence of maximum flight performance in volant taxa. To explore intraspecific correlates of flight performance, we assembled a large dataset that included 13 morphological and kinematic variables for a non-migratory passerine, the Eurasian tree sparrow (Passer montanus). We found that heavier flight muscles and larger wings, heavier stomachs and shorter bills were the most important correlates of maximum load-lifting capacity. Surprisingly, wingbeat frequency, wing stroke amplitude and masses of the heart, lungs and digestive organs (except for the stomach) were non-significant predictor variables relative to lifting capacity. The best-fit structural equation model (SEM) indicated that load-lifting capacity was positively correlated with flight muscle mass, wing area and stomach mass, but was negatively correlated with bill length. Characterization of individual variability in flight performance in a free-ranging passerine indicates the subtlety of interaction effects among morphological features, some of which differ from those that have been identified interspecifically for maximum flight performance in birds.

Nesting of Eurasian Tree Sparrow Passer montanus in a nest of Red Kite Milvus milvus

In June 2019 we found a nest of Eurasian Tree Sparrow Passer montanus in a nest of Red Kite Milvus milvus. It contained five chicks and was located on the side of the kite nest. The nests were located 17 m above ground in a pine tree in a small pine woodland within farmland in western Poland. We believe that this is the first record of Eurasian Tree Sparrow breeding in a Red Kite nest. Our observation supports the notion of great adaptability and flexibility in selection of nest site reported by other authors, who have found Eurasian Tree Sparrow nest in large twig nests of several species.