Tree Level Research Articles

Diameter, height and species of 42 million trees in three European landscapes generated from field data and airborne laser scanning data.

Ecology and forestry sciences are using an increasing amount of data to address a wide variety of technical and research questions at the local, continental and global scales. However, one type of data remains rare: fine-grain descriptions of large landscapes. Yet, this type of data could help address the scaling issues in ecology and could prove useful for testing forest management strategies and accurately predicting the dynamics of ecosystem services. Here we present three datasets describing three large European landscapes in France, Poland and Slovenia down to the tree level. Tree diameter, height and species data were generated combining field data, vegetation maps and airborne laser scanning (ALS) data following an area-based approach. Together, these landscapes cover more than 100 000 ha and consist of more than 42 million trees of 51 different species. Alongside the data, we provide here a simple method to produce high-resolution descriptions of large landscapes using increasingly available data: inventory and ALS data. We carried out an in-depth evaluation of our workflow including, among other analyses, a leave-one-out cross validation. Overall, the landscapes we generated are in good agreement with the landscapes they aim to reproduce. In the most favourable conditions, the root mean square error (RMSE) of stand basal area (BA) and mean quadratic diameter (Dg) predictions were respectively 5.4 m 2.ha -1 and 3.9 cm, and the generated main species corresponded to the observed main species in 76.2% of cases.

Phytosanitary assessment of black and grey alder stands in Latvia

ABSTRACT Black alder Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn. and grey alder Alnus incana (L.) Moench, cover up to 11% of the forest area in Latvia. As alder dieback caused mainly by Phytophthora has been reported in several countries, we aimed to assess the distribution of Phytophthora-like symptomatic alders in Latvia and surveyed 208 alder-dominated forest stands. Symptomatic alders were found in 28% of stands, and in 8% of stands, the infected tree proportion comprised more than 10% of trees. Pocket Diagnostics® tests confirmed Phytophthora or other oomycete infection in 13% of stands, mainly in Central and Eastern Latvia. Trees that tested positive were mainly grey alder (1.0% of the overall number of surveyed grey alders), and fewer black alders tested positive (0.2% of the overall number of surveyed black alders). Grey alder had a significantly higher probability of having symptoms at both the stand level (probability 0.429) and the individual tree level (probability 0.017) in comparison to black alder (probabilities 0.185 and 0.004, respectively). In conclusion, alders with Phytophthora-like symptoms were found throughout the territory of Latvia, however, infection risk for the economically important tree species black alder is low.

Метод косвенных предпочтений формирования весов критериев с многоуровневой структурой

The method of forming criterion weights in tasks of multi-criteria evaluation of objects with a multi-level structure of indicators presented in the form of a hierarchical tree, is shown. The weights values are calculated on the basis of indi-rect measurement of preferences of adjacent pairs of local weights of criteria included in the vertices of a higher level of the hierarchical tree, in the form of expert assessments in the quantitative scale of relations. The calculation of quantitative weights first comes down to lexicographic sorting by descending order of criteria importance at each level of the hierarchy that are included in the vertices of a higher level, as a result of which the number of expert compari-sons of adjacent pairs in the scale of relations is reduced. The formation of local coefficients of the criteria importance is mathematically justified and is based on a matrix with special properties. A comparative analysis of the proposed method for forming quantitative weights with the method of hierarchy analysis, the least squares method and the ap-proximation matrix method based on the matrix of paired comparisons, is given. An example is given of solving the problem of multi-criteria evaluation of combat aircraft that participated in the tender, according to the tactical and technical characteristics presented in various measurement scales.

Identification Tree Damage on The Green line of The Mataram City

Street Arya Banjar Getas – Dr. Sujono is one of the green open spaces in the form of lanes in Mataram City. Visually, trees along street Arya Banjar Getas– Dr. Sujono Mataram City experience disturbances in the growth phase caused by biotic and abiotic factors. This study aims to obtain information on the type and extent of tree damage in the Green Open Space area along street Arya Banjar Getas and Dr. Sujono in Mataram City. The method used in collecting primary data and secondary data on tree damage is by census or analyzing all trees in the two green lines of Mataram City. The number of vegetation species found on the green line is 19 with 832 individual trees. The 4 most dominant species found on the green line are Angsana (Pterocarpus indicus) with 244 individuals, Mahogany (Swietenia mahagoni) with 144 individuals, Flamboyan (Delonix regia) with 108 individuals and Canary (Canarium ovatum) with 101 individual trees. Based on the FHM (Forest Health Monitoring) book and using the parameters of tree damage values (Tree Level Index), 3 categories of damage to the green line were obtained, namely with a percentage of healthy class 91%, medium class 7%, and sick class 3%.

Composition and Structure of Mangrove Species in Sekurau Bawah Hamlet, East Kutai Regency, East Kalimantan

The aim of this research is to explore the species composition and structure of mangrove forests in Sekurau Bawah Hamlet, Sekerat Village, Bengalon District, East Kutai Regency, East Kalimantan Province. Although the mangrove vegetation in Sekurau Bawah Hamlet is thick, there is still a lack of information on the composition and structure of the species. Therefore, research is needed to explore the biological resources around the mangrove forest area. The collection of vegetation data was done by combining the path method and compartmentalizing it. The plot areas for each growth stage are seedling, sapling and tree levels. The point of observation is determined purposively. The results of the study showed the highest Important Value Index (IVI) for growth for both seedling and sapling growth was of the Bruguiera parviflora species, while the tree level was of the Avicennia marina specie based on the representative condition of the mangrove vegetation studied.

Relations between tree-level closed string amplitudes and mixed string amplitudes at fewer points

We formulated the relations between closed string amplitudes and mixed string amplitudes at tree level. In this paper we focus on fewer points of external states. We factorized the closed string amplitudes by analytical continuation of complex variables. With a careful examination of branch points, the results show that closed string amplitudes can be expressed in terms of products of mixed string amplitudes and additional terms with appropriate phase factors. In terms of five-point amplitudes, we introduced a one-parameter dependent amplitude to capture the results. Finally, some physical interpretations were provided.

Integrated Metabolomics, Transcriptome and Functional Analysis Reveal Key Genes Are Involved in Tree Age-Induced Amino Acid Accumulation in Torreya grandis Nuts

Torreya grandis is native Chinese tree species of economic significance, renowned for its long lifespan and the rich nutritional value of its nuts. In this study, we analyzed the morphological characteristics, metabolites, associated gene expressions, and regulatory mechanism in nuts from young (10 years old) and old (1000 years old) T. grandis trees. We observed that the length, width, and weight of nuts from older trees were considerably greater than those from younger trees. Metabolomic analysis revealed that the concentrations of 18 amino acids and derivatives (including histidine and serine) in nuts from older trees were markedly higher than those in nuts from younger trees. Transcriptome and metabolomic correlation analysis identified 16 genes, including TgPK (pyruvate kinase), TgGAPDH (glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase), and others, which exhibit higher expression levels in older trees compared to younger trees, as confirmed by qRT-PCR. These genes are associated with the biosynthesis of histidine, glutamic acid, tryptophan, and serine. Transient expression of TgPK in tobacco led to increased pyruvate kinase activity and amino acid content (histidine, tryptophan, and serine). Additionally, dual-luciferase assays and yeast one-hybrid results demonstrated that TgWRKY21 positively regulates TgPK expression by directly binding to the TgPK promoter. These findings not only demonstrate the nutritional differences between nuts from young and old trees but also offer fresh insights into the development of nutritional sources and functional components based on nuts from old trees, enriching our understanding of the potential benefits of utilizing nuts from older trees.

Study of Composition and Potential of Production Forest Vegetation in the KPHP Dampelas Tinombo Area Pariasanagung Village Dampelas District Donggala District

Forests, as a gift and mandate from Almighty God, which were bestowed upon the Indonesian nation, are a natural wealth that is priceless, therefore we must be grateful for it. This research was carried out for 3 months, from June to September 2021. This research was located in a production forest in the Dampelas Tinombo Model KPHP area, which is included in the Parisian Agung Village area, Dampelas District, Donggala Regency, Central Sulawesi Province. The composition of vegetation types in the production forest of Parisian Agung Village consists of 28 types of vegetation. at the tree level in the plot there were 165 individuals from 25 types of vegetation, while at the pole level vegetation, there were 140 individuals from 25 types of vegetation, at the sapling level there were 145 individuals from 28 types of vegetation and at the seedling level there were 154 individuals from 28 types of vegetation. While the potential volume of trees in the observation plot is 162.53 m3 from 165 individuals, the bayas type has the largest volume with 13.17 m3 and the pole level volume in the observation plot is 17.89 m3 from 140 individuals, the prupuk type has the largest with 1.63 m3.

Heterosis from eucalypt single and multi-cross hybrids

Hybridizing is one of the most important ways to genetically improve eucalypts; especially to tropical species. Because of the high efficiency of asexual using hybrid heterosis, the current planting eucalypt varieties in most tropical areas in the world are hybrids. It’s well known that crossing different eucalypt species in different ways can create hybrids with different characters. But, it’s unclear what kind of species matings tend to create more heterosis. Here we systematically made and tested hybrids of: pure species by pure species (single cross), pure species by hybrids (three-way cross), hybrids by hybrids (double cross). The tropical eucalypt species we used as parents include: Eucalyptus urophylla, E. grandis, E. pellita, E. tereticornis and hybrids between them. The field testing results found: the overall performance of tree volume was: single cross > three way cross > intraspecies cross > double cross. Their 4-year advantages over intraspecies cross were: 29.9%, 8.0% and -12.5%. The coefficient of variation of the 4 types were: 55.3%, 61.2%, 64.0% and 67.1%. As for the survival rate, 4-year result was: double cross (72.6%) > three way cross (71.6%) > single cross (70.8%) > intraspecies cross (54.0%). This shows that the interspecies hybrids had similar environmental adaption, and they were all significantly higher than that of intraspecies cross. The single and multi-cross hybrids had similar coefficient of variation on survival rate. Combining with the results on family and individual tree level heterosis frequency and magnitude, we found that single-cross has more heterosis on volume growth while muti-cross has more heterosis on adaption. Genetic parameter analysis showed that single-cross hybrids have both high additive and high dominant heritability. But the heritability value on different species combinations can be very different. Three way-cross hybrids had the highest additive heritability, but very low dominant heritability. The double-cross hybrids had high dominant heritability, but very low additive heritability.

A hybrid type I + III inverse seesaw mechanism in U(1)R−L-symmetric MSSM

We show that, in a U(1)R−L-symmetric supersymmetric model, the pseudo-Dirac bino and wino can give rise to three light neutrino masses through effective operators, generated at the messenger scale between a SUSY breaking hidden sector and the visible sector. The neutrino-bino/wino mixing follows a hybrid type I+III inverse seesaw pattern. The light neutrino masses are governed by the ratio of the U(1)R−L-breaking gravitino mass, m3/2, and the messenger scale ΛM. The charged component of the SU(2)L-triplet, here the lightest charginos, mix with the charged leptons and generate flavor-changing neutral currents at tree level. We find that resulting lepton flavor violating observables yield a lower bound on the messenger scale, ΛM ≳ (500 − 1000) TeV for a simplified hybrid mixing scenario. We identify interesting mixing structures for certain U(1)R−L-breaking singlino/tripletino Majorana masses. For example, in some parameter regimes, bino or wino has no mixing with the electron neutrino. We also describe the rich collider phenomenology expected in this neutrino-mass generation mechanism.

Leading loops in cosmological correlators

Cosmological correlators from inflation are often generated at tree level and hence loop contributions are bounded to be small corrections by perturbativity. Here we discuss a scenario where this is not the case. Recently, it has been shown that for any number of scalar fields of any mass, the parity-odd trispectrum of a massless scalar must vanish in the limit of exact scale invariance due to unitarity and the choice of initial state. By carefully handling UV-divergences, we show that the one-loop contribution is non-vanishing and hence leading. Surprisingly, the one-loop parity-odd trispectrum is simply a rational function of kinematics, which we compute explicitly in a series of models, including single-clock inflation. Although the loop contribution is the leading term in the parity-odd sector, its signal-to-noise ratio is typically bounded from above by that of a corresponding tree-level parity-even trispectrum, unless instrumental noise and systematics for the two observables differ. Furthermore, we identify a series of loop contributions to the wavefunction that cancel exactly when computing correlators, suggesting a more general phenomenon.

Boosting cluster tree with reciprocal nearest neighbors scoring

Clustering plays a pivotal role in knowledge processing, knowledge bases, and expert systems, enabling AI systems to acquire knowledge effectively. Hierarchical clustering, in particular, offers an intelligent approach to represent knowledge hierarchically by transforming raw data into one/multiple tree-shaped components. However, a notable difficulty arises when attempting to pinpoint appropriate representative points within lower levels of the cluster tree. These points are of paramount importance, as they serve as the roots for subsequent aggregation within the upper levels of the cluster tree. Traditional hierarchical clustering algorithms have relied on rudimentary techniques to select these representative points, which may not provide an adequate representation. Consequently, the resulting cluster tree often falls short in terms of empirical performance. To address this shortcoming, we proposed an innovative hierarchical clustering algorithm in this paper. The proposed algorithm is designed to efficiently identify the representative point within each sub-minimum-spanning-tree during the construction of the cluster tree, achieved by topology-based scoring the reciprocal nearest data points. Rigorous testing on UCI datasets has demonstrated the superior clustering accuracy (measured by Rand Index and Normalized Mutual Information) of our proposed algorithm compared to other benchmark algorithms. Further analysis reveals that our algorithm boasts a O(nlogn) time-complexity and a O(logn) space-complexity, indicating its scalability and efficiency in handling large-scale data with minimal time and storage costs. Importantly, our algorithm’s ability to process up to two million data points on a standard personal computer underscores its cost-effectiveness.

Very high resolution canopy height maps from RGB imagery using self-supervised vision transformer and convolutional decoder trained on aerial lidar

Vegetation structure mapping is critical for understanding the global carbon cycle and monitoring nature-based approaches to climate adaptation and mitigation. Repeated measurements of these data allow for the observation of deforestation or degradation of existing forests, natural forest regeneration, and the implementation of sustainable agricultural practices like agroforestry. Assessments of tree canopy height and crown projected area at a high spatial resolution are also important for monitoring carbon fluxes and assessing tree-based land uses, since forest structures can be highly spatially heterogeneous, especially in agroforestry systems. Very high resolution satellite imagery (less than one meter (1 m) Ground Sample Distance) makes it possible to extract information at the tree level while allowing monitoring at a very large scale. This paper presents the first high-resolution canopy height map concurrently produced for multiple sub-national jurisdictions. Specifically, we produce very high resolution canopy height maps for the states of California and São Paulo, a significant improvement in resolution over the ten meter (10 m) resolution of previous Sentinel / GEDI based worldwide maps of canopy height. The maps are generated by the extraction of features from a self-supervised model trained on Maxar imagery from 2017 to 2020, and the training of a dense prediction decoder against aerial lidar maps. We also introduce a post-processing step using a convolutional network trained on GEDI observations. We evaluate the proposed maps with set-aside validation lidar data as well as by comparing with other remotely sensed maps and field-collected data, and find our model produces an average Mean Absolute Error (MAE) of 2.8 m and Mean Error (ME) of 0.6 m.

Effect of some irrigation systems on water stress levels of Washington navel orange trees

BackgroundThis experimental study was conducted during two successive seasons 2021–2022 on 10-year-old Washington navel orange trees (Citrus sinensis) budded on sour orange rootstock (Citrus aurantium) under sandy loamy soil conditions in Belbeis district, Sharkia Governorate, Egypt. This experimental study was conducted to compare some irrigation systems with different water stress levels on Washington navel trees and to determine the best system in terms of irrigation water use efficiency using different irrigation systems (drip and micro-sprinklers) under different levels of water supply (100, 80, and 60% of ETc, i.e., the estimated water requirements of crops).ResultsThe included data demonstrated that irrigation water amounts can be reduced by 20% for Washington navel trees, while maintaining production, with the possibility of increasing by using micro-sprinkler irrigation systems. In summary, water use efficiency increased with micro-sprinkler irrigation systems under ETc 80%, which resulted in 2.57 and 2.67 kg of fruit per cubic meter of irrigation water in the first and second seasons, respectively.ConclusionThe results of the present study showed that using ETc 80% combined with micro-sprinklers irrigation system had a high economic return through increasing total yield, water use efficiency, and water unit return (WUR) which reached to 10.26 EGP/one cubic meter of irrigation water and using less water irrigation amount by 20% at the same time. Thus, we recommend applying the treatment of ETc 80% combined with micro-sprinklers irrigation system to Washington navel orange trees budded on sour orange rootstock to gain a high economic return.

Floristic diversity and composition of heath forest in Kuala Tambangan Village, Tanah Laut District, Indonesia

Abstract. Soendjoto MA, Riefani MK, Diana S. 2023. Floristic diversity and composition of heath forest in Kuala Tambangan Village, Tanah Laut District, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 24: 5418-5427. Heath forest (kerangas) is a unique ecosystem characterized with sandy soil with poor nutrients. This harsh condition makes heath forest has unique vegetation diversity as well as vulnerable to disturbances. In South Kalimantan, there is a heath forest located in Kuala Tambangan, Tanah Laut District which has never been explored. The research aims to analyze the diversity and composition of vegetation community in heath forest in Kuala Tambangan and identify factors that have the potential to damage the forest. Data was collected using the transect method placed at three sites in the heath forest. Along each transect, 10 observation plots with size 20 m × 20 m were established to record woody plants at the tree level. Within this plot, nested plots with size of 10 m × 10 m was created to record plants at pole level, 5 m × 5 m for saplings and herbaceous plants and 2 m × 2 m for seedlings, ferns and grasses. In total, there were 85 plant species across all observation plots with 79 species were found in the heath soils. Some typical heath forest species were found such as Melaleuca sp., Baeckea frutescens L. and Cratoxylum formosum (Jack) Benth. & Hook.fil. ex Dyer. Important Value Index (IVI) as well as Shannon-Wiener diversity index (H') varied, both by plant group and by study site. For example, the highest IVI of the tree group belonged to Acacia crassicarpa A.Cunn. ex Benth. and Acacia mangium Willd., and for pole level was Melaleuca sp. The lowest diversity occurred at Site B, while the highest was at Site C. The results on vegetation diversity, structure and composition suggest that this forest is in degraded condition. Fires and land conversion are factors that threaten the existence of heath forest in Kuala Tambangan. Our findings recommend the needs of efforts to protect and restore this unique ecosystem.

Feature Selection Techniques for Wood Density Prediction in Forest Dataset

Feature selection becomes important, especially in data sets with a large number of variables and features. It will eliminate unimportant variables and increase classification accuracy and performance. Because of the increasing growth of data in numerous industries, some data is high-dimensional and contains essential and complex hidden linkages, posing new problems to feature selection: i) How to extract the underlying available relationships from the data, and ii) How to apply the learnt relations to improve feature selection? To address these issues, we use the six feature selection approach as a pre-processing step in the analysis to avoid over fitting and potential model under performance. Which can learn and apply the underlying sample relations and feature relations for feature selection. This study compared six feature selection approaches (Pearson Coefficient, Correlation matrix, Variable Importance, Forward selection, and Backward Elimination) for determining the decomposition level of forest trees. Our trials clearly provide a comparative evaluation of the Wrapper approach from several angles. Furthermore, we compare the dataset result with critical attributes to obtain the highest percentage accuracy. The experimental results show that the wrapper technique outperforms all other methods in all experiment groups.

S-matrix on effective string and compactified membrane

Expanding Nambu–Goto action near infinitely long string vacuum one can compute scattering amplitudes of 2d massless fields representing transverse string coordinates. As was shown in (Dubovsky et al 2012 J. High Energy Phys. JHEP09(2012)044), the resulting S-matrix is integrable (provided appropriate local counterterms are added), in agreement with known free string spectrum and also with an interpretation of the static-gauge NG action as a deformation of a free massless theory. We consider a generalization of this computation to the case of a membrane, expanding its 3d action near an infinite membrane vacuum that has cylindrical shape (we refer to such membrane as ‘compactified’). Representing 3d fields as Fourier series in S 1 coordinate we get an effective 2d model in which the massless string modes are coupled to an infinite KK tower of massive 2d modes. We find that the resulting 2d S-matrix is not integrable already at the tree level. We also compute 1-loop scattering amplitude of massless string modes with all compactified membrane modes propagating in the loop. The result is UV finite and is a non-trivial function of the kinematic variables. In the large momentum limit or when the radius of S 1 is taken to infinity we recover the expression for the 1-loop scattering amplitude of the uncompactified membrane. We also consider a 2d model which is the deformation to the free theory with the same massless plus infinite massive tower of modes. The corresponding 2d S-matrix is found, as expected, to be integrable. Contribution to the special issue of Journal of Physics A: ‘Fields, Gravity, Strings and Beyond: In Memory of Stanley Deser’

Responses of the Crown Shape of Larix kaempferi Plantations to Site Index in Subtropical Areas of China

This study addresses how site index may affect crown shape by developing a crown shape regression model for the planted L. kaempferi at high altitudes in the subtropical climate of China. A total of 9241 branches from 78 trees, including 39 dominant trees and 39 intermediate trees, were measured in Hubei Province, southern China. The branch characteristics, including branch length, branch angle, and branch chord length of all living branches, were measured by felling trees. The models that showed good performance in crown shape modeling were used and compared in the present study. The goodness of fit statistics and stability of parameter estimation of the modified Kozak equation were better than those of the segmented polynomial equation. A nonlinear mixed-effect crown shape model was developed based on the modified Kozak equation. In addition to the tree level variables of diameter at the breast height (DBH), crown ratio (CR), and tree height-to-DBH ratio, an attempt was made to incorporate the site index into the crown shape model for the planted L. kaempferi. However, the site index was not a significant variable in the crown shape model. The purpose of our study was to lay the foundation for further study of the growth of the trees and the effects of crown morphology on stem growth in the future.

Tree Condition and Analysis Program – Detecting Forest Disturbance at the Tree Level across the Contiguous United States with High Resolution Imagery

Abstract Effective management of forest insects and diseases requires detection of abnormal mortality, particularly among a single species, sufficiently early to enable effective management. Remote detection of individual trees crowns requires a spatial resolution not available from satellites such as Landsat or Sentinel-2. In the United States, there are currently few operational systems capable of effectively and affordably detecting and mapping tree mortality over broad landscapes using high-resolution imagery. Here, we introduce the Tree Condition and Analysis Program (TreeCAP), an open-source system that uses freely available imagery from the National Agriculture Imagery Program (NAIP) to create maps of tree condition (healthy or damaged). We demonstrate the potential applications of TreeCAP in four study sites: (1) beetle-killed pines in California, (2) emerald ash borer progression in Wisconsin, (3) hemlock wooly adelgid mortality in Pennsylvania, and (4) drought damage in Texas. We achieved an average overall accuracy of 87% across all study sites.

Struktur Komunitas Mangrove di Pesisir Pantai Cemara Kabupaten Lombok Barat dalam Upaya Penyusunan Modul Ekologi

The mangrove habitat found on the coast of Cemara Beach, West Lombok Regency is a river that meets a forest area that merges with the sea. The objectives of this research include: 1) identifying the types of plants that make up the mangrove forest on the Cemara Coast; 2) analyze the abundance of mangroves on the Cemara Coast; 3) analyze the diversity and evenness index of mangroves on the Cemara Coast; 4) reveal the population of species that dominate the mangrove community on the Cemara Coast; 5) analyze differences in mangrove abundance on sandy and muddy substrates on the Cemara Coast; 6) analyze differences in mangrove species diversity on sandy and muddy substrates on the Cemara Coast; 7) analyze the differences in mangrove dominance on sandy and muddy substrates on the Cemara Coast; and 8) develop research results on mangrove community structure as material in preparing ecological modules. This type of research is comparative descriptive. The design in this research uses a plot method with a total of 20 plots, namely 10 plots on a sandy substrate and 10 plots on a muddy substrate with 1 plot measuring 10 x 10 m. Development research using the 4D model from Thiagarajan et al. (1974) which was modified into 3P (Definition, Design and Development). The results of the research showed that there were 5 species of mangroves found on sandy substrates, while there were 4 species on muddy substrates. The abundance of mangrove plants on sandy substrates is 292 species of Sonneratia alba, while on muddy substrates there are 219 species of Rhizophora mucronata. The diversity index for sandy substrates and muddy substrates is 0, so the diversity index is categorized as low species diversity because H'<1. The evenness of mangrove plants is the uneven distribution of organisms in the community. The species that dominates on sandy substrates is Sonneratia alba, while on muddy substrates it is Rhizophora mucronata. The important value index for the level of poles and trees as well as the level of seedlings and saplings on sandy substrates is included in the medium category, because the important value index value ranges between 101% - 200% which is categorized as medium. Based on the results of the analysis of teaching materials, analysis of expert validation results and student readability tests (small group tests), the average achievement level reached 81.15% with very good qualifications. Thus, the plant ecology module teaching materials are suitable for use without revision.