Treatment Of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Research Articles

The possible effects of chili peppers on ADHD in relation to the gut microbiota

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a common neurodevelopmental disorder, which is characterized by inattention, impulsivity and hyperactivity. Although the etiology and pathogenesis of ADHD are not fully understood, existing studies have shown that it may be related to genetic factors, environmental factors, abnormal brain development, and psychosocial factors. In recent years, with the concept of microbioa-gut-brain axis (MGBA), more and more studies have begun to pay attention to the effect of gut microbiota on ADHD. Dietary structure can significantly change the diversity and abundance of gut microbiota. Therefore, dietary supplements or food additives to regulate gut microbiota have become one of the potential ways to treat ADHD. Peppers, as an important dietary component, have potential value in regulating gut microbiota. Among them, capsaicin (8-methyl N-vanillyl-6-noneamide, CAP), as a key active component of peppers, has been shown to have potential therapeutic effects on central nervous system (CNS) diseases such as Parkinson’s disease, epilepsy, and depression. In addition, much attention has been paid to the beneficial effects of CAP on gut microbiota. Chili peppers contain not only CAP, but also rich in vitamin C and fatty acids, all of which may ameliorate ADHD by modulating the gut microbiota. This finding not only provides a potential treatment for ADHD, but also provides a new perspective to expand the research and clinical treatment of ADHD pathogenesis. Although current research on the potential therapeutic effects of chili peppers on ADHD is still at an early stage and requires further verification through larger-scale and more rigorous controlled studies, its potential clinical value cannot be ignored.

Long-term effects of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) on social functioning and health care outcomes.

Research on the long-term effects of treatment for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) on educational and social outcomes is limited. This study aims to evaluate long-term social functioning outcomes in patients with ADHD and the potential effects of pharmacological treatment for ADHD. We used National Patient Registry data from 1995 to 2016 to identify patients diagnosed with ADHD and those collecting ADHD medication. Eligible patients were under 30 years old or had reached 30 between 2005 and 2016, ensuring a minimum 10-year observation period. A case-control design was applied, matching ADHD patients in a ratio of 1:4 with the general population based on age, sex, and residential municipality at the index year. Patients with ADHD experienced substantial socioeconomic difficulties, indicated by increased direct health care costs, higher rates of psychiatric comorbidities, and greater co-medication use compared with controls. No association was found between adherence to ADHD medication and completion of education at age 30 years. Adherence to ADHD medication appeared to negatively impact employment status at age 30, confounded by the severity of psychiatric comorbidity. Despite available treatments, patients with ADHD lag in achieving social functioning outcomes. Further research is needed to better understand how to support patients with ADHD in order to close the gaps in health and socioeconomic status.

Diminished Interoceptive Accuracy in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Systematic Review.

Interoception is the perception of one's internal physiological state. Altered interoception may play a role in the pathogenesis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). We reviewed the literature on interoception and ADHD symptoms (inattention, hyperactivity/impulsivity, executive function, emotional dysregulation) in individuals with and without the disorder. Studies included assessments of interoception and ADHD symptoms in (1) individuals with/without diagnoses of ADHD or (2) the general population. Interoception assessments included objective measures (heartbeat-tracking test) and self-report questionnaires. The literature search included the PubMed/MEDLINE, PsychINFO, CINAHL and Scopus databases. A protocol was prospectively registered in the PROSPERO database (CRD #42022351726); the PRISMA guidelines directed reporting. The Newcastle-Ottawa scale was adapted to evaluate study quality. Of 636 articles identified, 17 articles (based on 18 studies) met inclusion criteria. Five studies compared interoception in participants with/without ADHD, and three found that interoception was reduced in participants with ADHD. One study compared interoception between presentations of ADHD, finding no differences. Twelve studies assessed the association of ADHD symptoms and interoception in the general population. Overall, results suggested that interoception is reduced in individuals who reported higher symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity, impulsivity, emotional dysregulation, and executive dysfunction. Studies were of moderate quality; issues included small sample sizes and inadequate reporting. Individuals with ADHD may have decreased interoception compared to individuals without. Interoception is negatively associated with ADHD symptoms in the general population. Interventions focused on improving interoceptive abilities may provide an avenue for ADHD treatment. Future work should consider the role of culture in interoception.

The effect of guanfacine treatment on ocular parameters in pediatric and adolescents patients with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

This study aimed to evaluate the effects of guanfacine on the anterior and posterior segments of the eye. This prospective study included 32 children and adolescents with Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The participants underwent a detailed ophthalmologic evaluation before and 6 months after the beginning of guanfacine treatment. The following data were recorded for each participant: refraction error, intraocular pressure (IOP), anterior chamber depth (ACD), central corneal thickness (CCT), corneal aberrations using corneal topography, retinal nerve fiber layer (RNFL) analysis of seven quadrants (central, nasal, naso-superior, naso-inferior, temporal, temporo-superior, temporo-inferior), central macular thickness (CMT), and choroidal thickness (CT). Assessments were made of these parameters obtained from images using an optical coherence tomography (OCT) instrument. A significant increase in total root mean square (RMS) (p = 0.029*), RMS low-order aberration (LOA) (p = 0.014*), Coma 0° (p < 0.001*), and Coma 90° (p = 0.037*) corneal aberrations was observed at the sixth month of guanfacine treatment in comparison with the baseline examination. Other ocular parameters demonstrated no significant change from the baseline examination findings at the sixth month of guanfacine treatment. (p > 0.05, for each). Oral guanfacine in the treatment of ADHD had no effect on ocular structures such as the retina, choroid, optic nerve, refraction, or corneal thickness, although it increased corneal aberrations. The results require support through further studies with extended follow-up and a larger patient group.

Effects of a Procrastination Intervention for Japanese University Students With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Tendencies: An Interrupted Time Series Analysis.

University students, especially those with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), experience distress due to procrastination. However, the existing treatment for adult ADHD does not adequately address procrastination. A brief procrastination-focused cognitive behavioral therapy program was developed for the current study, and its effects on procrastination, depression, and life satisfaction were assessed. Using a single-case AB design, procrastination behaviors and mood during the baseline and intervention periods were recorded. Data from 24 students with ADHD symptoms (mean age = 20.42 years, SD = 1.50) were analyzed using interrupted time series and counterfactual analyses. The effects of the program on the depressive symptoms and life satisfaction were also examined. The intervention changed the trajectory of the students' procrastination behaviors, significantly reducing them compared with baseline. They also reported improved life satisfaction following the intervention. This novel intervention appears effective in reducing procrastination among university students with ADHD symptoms.

Effects of Adding Tizanidine on Stimulants in Treatment of ADHD: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial

Background: Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is defined as a neurodevelopmental disorder and is one of the most common psychiatric disorders in children and adolescents. Various treatments have been recommended to manage this disorder, including stimulants and non-stimulants. Stimulants are the first-line treatment strategy for ADHD; however, approximately 30% of patients exhibit drug resistance or sensitivity to these medications. Consequently, other drug groups, such as Alpha2 agonists, are used in such cases. Clonidine and guanfacine are Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved drugs for the treatment of ADHD, and they belong to this group. Tizanidine is an Alpha2 agonist that has not yet been studied for this disorder. Objectives: Due to the lack of information and studies in this area, the purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of adding tizanidine to stimulants in the treatment of ADHD. Methods: This research was a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized trial conducted in outpatient units and admission wards of university hospitals. Forty patients aged 6 to 18 years, with at least one month of unsuccessful treatment of ADHD with lisdexamfetamine (Vyvanse), participated in the study. The participants received either Vyvanse and tizanidine (group 1, n = 20) or Vyvanse alone (group 2, n = 19) for an 8-week period. Symptom severity improvement was assessed using the CONNERS' Parent Rating Scale-48 (CPRS-48) and the Swanson, Nolan, and Pelham Rating Scale (SNAP-IV). Safety measurements were assessed using pulse rate, blood pressure, and electrocardiogram (ECG) changes during the study period. Results: During the 8-week follow-up, SNAP-IV measures did not change significantly in either of the two groups. A significant within-group change was observed only in the conduct domain of CPRS-48 (P &lt; 0.05). Conclusions: Adding tizanidine is not effective in the treatment of ADHD but demonstrates sufficient safety for use in the pediatric age group.

Motor skills in children with ADHD: overlap with developmental coordination disorder

Individuals with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) often have overlooked motor difficulties which can be at least partially attributed to co-occurring conditions such as Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD). Understanding the influence of DCD and motor difficulties is important to detect in children for early support. Accordingly, the present study examined the prevalence of DCD diagnoses, cases of probable DCD, and related impairments among German-speaking parents of children with ADHD. A total of N = 168 parents completed an online study about their child’s potential for co-occurring DCD via the Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire (DCD-Q). Even after children with DCD diagnoses were removed from the sample (n = 46), a majority still remained below threshold for probable DCD (55.9%) according to parent-reports. Via exploratory analyses, we also found that a majority of parents in the sample had not heard of DCD before (64.9%) and that many parents did not deem DCD as relevant to their children, even when their DCD-Q scores were in the range of probable DCD. The results align with a high prevalence of DCD in children with ADHD despite a simultaneous lack of awareness of DCD. Furthermore, findings in our sample align with frequently estimated global co-occurrence rates of 50% between ADHD and DCD. Broadly, the results support that motor difficulties should be considered in ADHD assessment and intervention.

An Analysis of the Impact of Digital Therapeutic Interventions on Attention and Working Memory in Children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Randomized Controlled Trial

Previous research has investigated non-pharmacological digital therapeutic interventions to improve compliance and reduce side effects in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) medication treatments for children. This study focuses on validating the effects of game-based intervention content for enhancing working memory and concentration. It tracks quantitative changes to evaluate improvements in concentration and working memory when digital game-based content is used as adjunct therapy alongside medication for children with ADHD. Thirty children participated; one group received digital therapeutic intervention based on game content alongside medication (experimental) and the other group received conventional treatments (control). The study results show that children with ADHD in the experimental group, who use digital game-based content, exhibit a reduction of 8.13 ± 6.71 points in the K-ARS total score at the fourth week compared to baseline, while the control group shows a reduction of 7.14 ± 8.73 points. Inattention decreases by 36.84% in the experimental group and 28.56% in the control group, while hyperactivity–impulsivity decreases by 50.71% in the experimental group and 34.00% in the control group. All the results are analyzed using a paired t-test between baseline and the fourth week. Significant decreases in the K-CBCL total problem behavior score and internalizing and externalizing behaviors are consistently observed at 28 days compared with baseline. The FAIR attention–concentration test results show significant differences between the experimental and control groups in the Q-percentile and Q-standard scores, with repeated measures ANOVA results showing p = 0.006 and p = 0.007, respectively. Digital content was shown to influence digital therapeutic intervention—a non-pharmacological treatment for ADHD.

VIRTUAL REALITY IN IMPROVING EMOTIONAL SELF-REGULATION IN CHILDREN WITH ADHD: A narrative review

This study seeks to examine the assessment of emotional reactions in children with ADHD, through exposure to environmental stimuli through Virtual Reality. It is a narrative review that aims to analyze the national literature available in databases such as SciELO, Google Scholar and VHL, searching for research related to the central theme of this study. In each database, the health search terms “ADHD”, “virtual reality” and “environment” were used, combined with the Boolean operator “AND”. At this juncture, the interaction between Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), exposure to environmental stimuli and virtual reality has aroused considerable interest in the neuroscientific community. Understanding the neurobiological basis of ADHD is essential for developing effective interventions. Studies show that exposure to nature has significant benefits for mental health, particularly in children with ADHD, by improving attention and reducing stress. In this context, Virtual Reality emerges as a viable alternative, reproducing the therapeutic effects of nature. This unique approach has the potential to modulate neural activity and generate positive emotional responses. The integration of these approaches promises promising prospects for the treatment of ADHD and other mental disorders, providing significant improvements in patients' well-being.

Neuromodulation as a Potential Intervention for Children With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder.

This review examines the therapeutic potential of neuromodulation methods, including neurofeedback, transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), as non-pharmacological interventions for children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). A comprehensive review of current studies was conducted, focusing on each technique's mechanism, application, and efficacy in managing ADHD symptoms and cognitive deficits. Studies included human participants with ADHD, evaluating changes in symptom severity and cognitive outcomes. Neurofeedback demonstrated efficacy in symptom reduction, particularly when combined with pharmacotherapy, yielding sustained improvements. tDCS showed moderate efficacy, especially in attention and impulsivity control; however, variability in protocols and pediatric response highlights the need for standardization. TMS exhibited mixed outcomes, with high-frequency TMS targeting the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex indicating potential cognitive benefits, though results were inconsistent across studies. Neuromodulation presents a promising complementary approach for ADHD treatment in children, potentially addressing limitations of pharmacotherapy. Future research should focus on optimizing stimulation parameters, increasing sample sizes, and refining methodologies to establish neuromodulation as part of standard ADHD treatment protocols.

Atomoxetine as a treatment for attention déficit hiperactivity disorder: a literature review

Introduction: Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is an increasingly common neurobiological disorder with some therapeutic variants. Atomoxetine is a non-stimulant, potent and selective inhibitor with a tendency to be used in this condition.Objective: to analyze the results of Atomoxetine in terms of dependence and effectiveness in the symptomatic control of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder.Method: a search for information was carried out in the PubMed database using inclusion and exclusion criteria where 12 articles were analyzed, including case-control studies, clinical studies and randomized controlled trials. Results: a total of 12 articles were identified, 6 of which provided substantial information on the use of Atomoxetine, effectiveness, and risk/benefit versus placebos and stimulant pharmacotherapy. Conclusion: Atomoxetine is a safe and effective drug for the treatment of ADHD because of the low risk of dependence and side effects compared to other drugs already in use

Factors associated with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms among patients with substance use in Malaysia.

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) often coexists with substance use disorders (SUDs). This study aimed to determine factors associated with ADHD symptoms among adults with SUDs in Malaysia. Patients aged ≥18 years with a ≥1-year history of substance use who were admitted to any of the three drug rehabilitation centres in urban Malaysia for >1 month were invited to participate. Participants were interviewed using the Malay version of the Alcohol, Smoking and Substance Involvement Screening Test to assess substance use and the Malay version of the Adult ADHD Self-Reporting Scale to assess ADHD symptoms. The prevalence of adult ADHD symptoms among participants with SUDs was 47.2%. Compared with participants without ADHD, a lower proportion of participants with ADHD had medical comorbidities (84.9% vs 93.3%, p = 0.018), whereas a higher proportion of participants with ADHD symptoms had a history of imprisonment (80.8% vs 65.6%, adjusted p = 0.018) and first imprisonment before the age of 18 years (24.6% vs 16.8%, adjusted p = 0.048). A high proportion of adults undergoing rehabilitation for SUDs have ADHD symptoms. Screening and interventions for ADHD should be integrated into SUD rehabilitation programmes.

Metaforest Algorithm Insights: Predictors of Nocebo Response in ADHD

Background: Predicting the nocebo response in randomized controlled trials (RCTs) is crucial as it can help minimize its influence and improve the evaluation of the side effects of interventions for ADHD. The aim of this study is to determine the effect of covariates related to study design, intervention, and patients’ characteristics on the nocebo response in patients with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) using Metaforest, and, ultimately, to investigate Metaforest’s performance in predicting nocebo response in ADHD RCTs. Methods: This study is a secondary analysis of a previously published systematic review [1]. Nocebo response was defined as the proportion of patients experiencing at least one AE while receiving a placebo. We used Metaforest for investigating patient-, intervention, and study design-related nocebo response moderators in ADHD RCTs. Results: One hundred and five studies were included. Overall, 55.4% of patients experienced at least one AE while receiving placebo. However, between-study variability on nocebo response was very high, with nocebo response ranging from 4.2% to 90.2%, leading to high statistical heterogeneity (I2 = 88.3%). Older patients showed a higher nocebo response. The moderating effects of the year of publication, treatment length and gender were also significant. The predictive performance of the model was low-moderate (R2 test = 0, 1922; MSE = 0, 0408). Conclusion: Age was the most important nocebo response modifier, followed by year of publication, treatment length and gender. Metaforest lacked the capability to predict nocebo responses in future studies.

Clonidine Oral Suspension (Onyda XR) for ADHD

The FDA has approved Onyda XR (Tris), an extended-release (ER) oral suspension formulation of the alpha2-adrenergic agonist clonidine, for use as monotherapy or as an adjunct to stimulant therapy for treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children ≥6 years old. Clonidine ER tablets have been available for years for treatment of ADHD in children 6-17 years old.

The challenge and promise of disentangling neurodevelopmental conditions a commentary on Davis etal. (2024).

This commentary evaluates the study by Davis etal. on the early behavioural manifestations of autism spectrum condition (ASC) and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in preschool children. Davis etal. show how children who later receive dual diagnoses exhibit significantly more severe symptoms and greater behavioural challenges compared to their peers. The study's methodological strengths, including its prospective longitudinal design and well-validated measures, are highlighted. However, the commentary also critiques the reliance on the traditional diagnostic paradigm, advocating for a shift towards data-driven or dimensional approaches to better capture the complexities of neurodevelopmental conditions. By adopting such methodologies, the commentary suggests improvements in clinical practices through more personalised interventions, thereby advancing our understanding and treatment of ASC and ADHD.

Personalized Game-Based Content and Performance: A Pilot Study on a Digital Intervention for Children with ADHD.

Mobile-based digital interventions for children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have been developed to alleviate their symptoms. When developing mobile game-based digital interventions for ADHD treatment, it is important to research how the emotional responses of the target audience members-based on flashy visuals or difficulty adjustments to motivate the user-affect their content manipulation ability. This study performed a correlation analysis to examine the impact of perceived difficulty and enjoyment (interest) on the performance of children diagnosed with ADHD while engaging in game-based digital content. Statistically significant differences were observed in the following variables based on the enjoyment level: correct rate (p = 0.0040), decision time (p = 0.0302), difficulty (p < 0.0001), and touch time (p = 0.0249). Considering difficulty level, statistically significant differences were observed for correct rate (p = 0.0011), decision time (p = 0.0158), and difficulty (p < 0.0001). Correlation analysis between the variables correct rate, decision time, difficulty, touch, time limit, and touch time based on enjoyment and difficulty did not reveal significant correlations. Therefore, for children with ADHD, digital interventions should focus on the therapeutic goals rather than on flashy visuals or difficulty adjustments aimed at enhancing interest. Based on these results, further research exploring how psychological states affect performance regarding digital content is necessary.

Neurofeedback for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

Neurofeedback has been proposed for the treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) but the efficacy of this intervention remains unclear. To conduct a meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials (RCTs) using probably blinded (ie, rated by individuals probably or certainly unaware of treatment allocation) or neuropsychological outcomes to test the efficacy of neurofeedback as a treatment for ADHD in terms of core symptom reduction and improved neuropsychological outcomes. PubMed (MEDLINE), Ovid (PsycInfo, MEDLINE, Embase + Embase Classic), and Web of Science, as well as the reference lists of eligible records and relevant systematic reviews, were searched until July 25, 2023, with no language limits. Parallel-arm RCTs investigating neurofeedback in participants of any age with a clinical ADHD or hyperkinetic syndrome diagnosis were included. Standardized mean differences (SMDs) with Hedges g correction were pooled in random effects meta-analyses for all eligible outcomes. The primary outcome was ADHD total symptom severity assessed at the first postintervention time point, focusing on reports by individuals judged probably or certainly unaware of treatment allocation (probably blinded). Secondary outcomes were inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity symptoms and neuropsychological outcomes postintervention and at a longer-term follow-up (ie, after the last follow-up time point). RCTs were assessed with the Cochrane risk of bias tool version 2.0. A total of 38 RCTs (2472 participants aged 5 to 40 years) were included. Probably blinded reports of ADHD total symptoms showed no significant improvement with neurofeedback (k = 20; n = 1214; SMD, 0.04; 95% CI, -0.10 to 0.18). A small significant improvement was seen when analyses were restricted to RCTs using established standard protocols (k = 9; n = 681; SMD, 0.21; 95% CI, 0.02 to 0.40). Results remained similar with adults excluded or when analyses were restricted to RCTs where cortical learning or self-regulation was established. Of the 5 neuropsychological outcomes analyzed, a significant but small improvement was observed only for processing speed (k = 15; n = 909; SMD, 0.35; 95% CI, 0.01 to 0.69). Heterogeneity was generally low to moderate. Overall, neurofeedback did not appear to meaningfully benefit individuals with ADHD, clinically or neuropsychologically, at the group level. Future studies seeking to identify individuals with ADHD who may benefit from neurofeedback could focus on using standard neurofeedback protocols, measuring processing speed, and leveraging advances in precision medicine, including neuroimaging technology.

Effects of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation on prefrontal cortical activation in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a functional near-infrared spectroscopy study.

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a prevalent neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by inattention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity. With the continuous development of neuromodulation technology, Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (rTMS) has emerged as a potential non-invasive treatment for ADHD. However, there is a lack of research on the mechanism of rTMS for ADHD. Functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) is an optical imaging technique that reflects the brain function by measuring changes in blood oxygen concentration in brain tissue. Consequently, this research utilized fNIRS to examine the impact of rTMS on the core symptoms and prefrontal cortex activation in children with ADHD, which provides a reference for the clinical application of rTMS in the treatment of ADHD. Forty children with ADHD were chosen as research subjects and randomly assigned to two groups: a treatment group (20 subjects) and a control group (20 subjects). The control group received non-pharmacological interventions, whereas the treatment group was administered rTMS in conjunction with non-pharmacological interventions. Clinical symptom improvement was evaluated using SNAP-IV scale scores both before and after treatment. Additionally, fNIRS was utilized to monitor alterations in the relative concentrations of oxyhemoglobin (HbO2) and deoxyhemoglobin (HbR) in the prefrontal cortex during resting state and during the Go/no-go task state, both pre- and post-treatment. In conclusion, the study comprised 17 participants in the treatment group and 18 in the control group. Initially, the SNAP-scale scores were comparable between the groups, with no significant differences observed (p > 0.05). Post-treatment, a notable reduction in SNAP-scale scores was evident (p < 0.05), with the treatment group exhibiting a more pronounced decrease (p < 0.05). Following the intervention, both groups demonstrated enhanced Resting-state functional connectivity (RSFC) in the prefrontal cortex, as indicated by a significant increase compared to pre-treatment levels (p < 0.05). Specifically, the treatment group showed superior RSFC in the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, left medial prefrontal cortex, and right medial prefrontal cortex compared to the control group (p < 0.05). However, no significant differences were noted in RSFC of the left and right temporal lobes between the two groups (p > 0.05). In the Go/no-go task, the treatment group recorded higher mean HbO2 concentrations in the aforementioned prefrontal cortical regions compared to the control group (p < 0.05). Conversely, no statistically significant disparities were observed in the left and right temporal lobes of both groups. rTMS shows promise as a treatment for ADHD by modulating prefrontal cortical activation. fNIRS provides a valuable method for assessing these effects, offering insights into the neurobiological mechanisms underlying rTMS therapy.

Transcutaneous auricular vagus nerve stimulation as a potential therapy for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: modulation of the noradrenergic pathway in the prefrontal lobe.

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by developmental impairments, inattention, motor hyperactivity, and impulsivity. Currently, there is no effective intervention that can completely cure it. One of the pathogenic mechanisms of ADHD involves abnormalities in the norepinephrine (NE) pathway within the prefrontal cortex (PFC). In recent years, transcutaneous auricular vagus nerve stimulation (taVNS), a non-invasive neuromodulation technique, has demonstrated promising potential in the treatment of neurological and psychiatric disorders. However, its application in the management of ADHD remains relatively unexplored. Previous studies have shown that taVNS exerts therapeutic effects on attention, cognition, arousal, perception, and behavioral regulation primarily through activating the vagus nerve conduction pathway, specifically targeting the nucleus tractus solitarius - locus coeruleus - NE pathway. These findings have led to the hypothesis that taVNS may be an effective intervention for ADHD, with NE and its pathway playing a pivotal role in this context. Therefore, this review comprehensively examines the correlation between NE pathway alterations in the PFC and ADHD, the mechanism of action of taVNS, and the potential role of the NE pathway in treating ADHD with taVNS, aiming to provide a theoretical foundation for clinical applications.

The use of augmented reality in assessing and training children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a serious issue that must be addressed in the modern world. Treatment for ADHD is challenging because it is costly, has adverse effects, might not be successful, and is not considered an emergency. The reason that ADHD is hard to manage is because it causes people-especially children-to make impulsive decisions that hinder their ability to succeed in school, the workplace, and other areas of life. As an alternative approach, neurofeedback therapy or play therapy, which relies on real-time feedback of an individual's brainwave activity typically collected through electroencephalogram (EEG), has demonstrated promising outcomes in the treatment of mental disorders and enhancing cognitive capabilities. On the other hand, prolonged exposure to repetitive feedback might result in lower engagement since people may become disinterested in the process and find it difficult to continue participating. An extensive assessment on the use of augmented reality (AR) in the context of pediatric ADHD has been carried out, with an emphasis on the benefits of creating games specifically for kids with ADHD. By using AR technology in a group of children, the goal of this study was to investigate the basic characteristics of AR systems that aid in the identification and treatment of ADHD in children.