Treadmill Desk Research Articles

"It's Been a Game Changer": Examining Treadmill Desk Use When Working from Home.

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s41542-023-00144-0.

Gait Symmetry Is Unaffected When Completing a Motor Dexterity Task While Using a Walking Workstation in Healthy, Young Adults

Walking workstations may counteract sedentarism in working adults; however, performing dual-task walking may affect gait or work performance. The purpose of this study was to examine gait symmetry parameters and work performance while completing a fine motor dexterity task during walking workstation use. Gait function, quantified as gait symmetry, was used to identify attentional resource allocation of the co-occurring tasks during the dual-task conditions. Eighteen college-aged students performed the Purdue Pegboard Test (PPT) with left and right hands separately while using a walking workstation at a self-selected speed. Gait symmetry indices were computed on stride length and lower extremity angular joint positions and were analyzed for a comparison of the baseline and PPT dual-task conditions. No asymmetries were found in stride length or lower extremity angular joint positions at any sub-phase of gait during walking workstation use. PPT scores decreased significantly in the walking condition compared to the seated and standing conditions. Overall, gait symmetry did not change at any lower extremity angular joint position at any sub-phase; however, there was a decrease in PPT performance, which may relate to decreased work performance. However, increased exposure to the PPT task while using a walking workstation may improve work performance over time.

Does treadmill workstation use affect user's kinematic gait symmetry?

The effects of treadmill workstation use on kinematic gait symmetry and computer work performance remain unclear. The purpose of this pilot study was to analyze the effects of treadmill workstation use on lower body motion symmetry while performing a typing task when compared to overground and treadmill walking. The lower body motion of ten healthy adults (6 males and 4 females) was recorded by a motion capture system. Hip, knee, and ankle joint rotations were computed and compared for each condition. Despite comparable lower body kinematic gait asymmetries across conditions, asymmetric knee flexion motions at early gait cycle were only found in treadmill workstation users (left knee significantly more flexed than the right one). This demonstrates that the interaction between walking and another task is dependent on the task cognitive content. Our findings suggest that lower body kinematic gait symmetry may be influenced by the use of treadmill workstations.

A systematic review and meta-analysis of the effect of treadmill desks on energy expenditure, sitting time and cardiometabolic health in adults

BackgroundAs the health risks of sedentary working environments become more clear, greater emphasis on the implementation of walking interventions to reduce sitting time is needed. In this systematic review and meta-analysis, we investigate the role of treadmill-desk interventions on energy expenditure, sitting time, and cardiometabolic health in adults with sedentary occupations.MethodsRelevant studies published in English were identified using CINAHL, EMBASE, MEDLINE, Web of Science, Scopus, and PubMed databases up to December 2020. Random effects meta-analysis models were used to pool study results.ResultsThirteen relevant studies (six workplaces and seven laboratories) were found with a total of 351 participants. Pooled analysis of laboratory studies showed a significant increase in energy expenditure (105.23 kcal per hour, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 90.41 to 120.4), as well as metabolic rate (5.0 mL/kg/min, 95% CI: 3.35 to 6.64), among treadmill desk users compared to sitting conditions. No evidence of significant differences in blood pressure were found. In workplace studies, we observed a significant reduction in sitting time over a 24-h period (− 1.73 min per hour, 95% CI: − 3.3 to − 0.17) among users of treadmill desks, compared to a conventional desk. However, there were no evidence of statistically significant changes in other metabolic outcomes.ConclusionsTreadmill desks offer a feasible and effective intervention to increase energy expenditure and metabolic rate and reduce sitting time while performing work-related tasks. Future studies are needed to increase generalizability to different workplace settings and further evaluate their impact on cardiometabolic health.

Role of age and sex on dual tasking using a treadmill desk while performing cognitive tests.

Treadmill desks have been used extensively to increase physical activity and decrease sedentary time in the work environment. However, dual tasking, such as simultaneously walking and performing a cognitive task, may result in diminished performance in one or both tasks. Do age and sex impact ability to dual task while using a treadmill desk at a preferred walking speed?. A total of n = 24 younger (range of 18-24 years, mean age = 21.1 ± 1.6 years) and n = 25 older (range of 45-65 years, mean age = 53.0 ± 5.1 years) adults self-selected a comfortable walking speed ranging from 0.5 to 2.0 mph and performed the Stroop Color & Word test (measuring Inhibition) and the Sternberg Test of Working Memory (measuring Working Memory) while walking at their chosen speed on a treadmill desk and while seated. Testing was performed in two separate sessions with the order counterbalanced. Step length, stride length, gait cycle time, and coefficient of variation (CV) for each were measured using OptoGait software, and both reaction time and accuracy for the two cognitive tests were assessed. Dual Task Cost (DTC) was calculated by using the formula (Single task score - Dual task score)/Single task score)*100. Younger adults had faster reaction time compared to older adults for both Working Memory and Inhibition tests (p < 0.05), and both males and females had slower reaction time for the Working Memory test when seated compared to walking (p < 0.05). For DTC, older adults had greater stride length CV during the Working Memory task (32.0 % vs 19.6 %), and regardless of age or sex, DTC for gait was greater than for cognition. These data provide evidence that while aging does decrease reaction time while dual tasking, few age differences and no sex differences were found in dual task cost. However, dual tasking results in diminished gait DTC compared to cognition DTC regardless of age or sex.

Effects of an "Active-Workstation" Cluster RCT on Daily Waking Physical Behaviors.

This study aimed to evaluate the effects of sit-to-stand and treadmill desks on sedentary behavior during a 12-month, cluster-randomized multicomponent intervention with an intent-to-treat design in overweight office workers. Sixty-six office workers were cluster-randomized into a control (n = 21; 8 clusters), sit-to-stand desk (n = 23; 9 clusters), or treadmill desk (n = 22; 7 clusters) group. Participants wore an activPAL™ accelerometer for 7 d at baseline, month 3, month 6, and month 12 and received periodic feedback on their physical behaviors. The primary outcome was total daily sedentary time. Exploratory outcomes included total daily and workplace sedentary, standing and stepping time, and the number of total daily and workplace sedentary, standing, and stepping bouts. Intervention effects were analyzed using random-intercept mixed linear models accounting for repeated measures and clustering effects. Total daily sedentary time did not significantly differ between or within groups after 12 months. Month 3 gains were observed in total daily and workplace standing time in both intervention groups (sit-to-stand desk: mean Δ ± SD, 1.03 ± 1.9 h·d-1 and 1.10 ± 1.87 h at work; treadmill desk: mean Δ ± SD, 1.23 ± 2.25 h·d-1 and 1.44 ± 2.54 h at work). At month 3, the treadmill desk users stepped more at the workplace than the control group (mean Δ ± SD, 0.69 ± 0.87 h). Month 6 gains in total daily stepping were observed within the sit-to-stand desk group (mean Δ ± SD, 0.82 ± 1.62 h·d-1), and month 3 gains in stepping at the workplace were observed for the treadmill desk group (mean Δ ± SD, 0.77 ± 0.83 h). These trends were sustained through month 12 in only the sit-to-stand desk group. Active-workstation interventions may cause short-term improvements in daily standing and stepping. Treadmill desk users engaged in fewer sedentary bouts, but sit-to-stand desks resulted in more frequent transitions to upright physical behaviors.

Does walking improve diagnosis of skin conditions at varying levels of medical expertise?

The use of walking workstations in educational and work settings has been shown to improve cognitive abilities. At the same time, it has been repeatedly shown that medical residents around the world do not meet exercise guidelines, mainly due to a scarcity of available free time. Our study investigates the boundaries of the previously observed phenomenon of improved cognitive performance with physical activity using materials that represent real life tasks. Participants had different level of expertise and involvedsecond year psychology students, medical students, and family medicine residents. We examined the effect of being physically inactive (i.e., sitting) or active (i.e., walking) while diagnosing multiple complex presentations of four skin conditions. We assumed that being physically active, irrespective of the level of expertise, will bolster diagnostic performance. Our findings show, however, that being physically active does not change the performance level of participants with different levels of medical expertise. Implications for medical education and suggestions for further research will be discussed.

Thermal comfort and physiological responses with standing and treadmill workstations in summer

The study investigates human thermal comfort requirements when using standing and treadmill workstations. Twenty-eight subjects were exposed to four ambient temperatures (20, 23, 26, 29 °C) while conducting four activities (sitting, standing, walking at 1.0 km/h, and walking at 2.0 km/h). Physiological responses, including metabolic rate, skin temperature, and skin wettedness, were measured continuously, while subjective thermal comfort responses were surveyed. Treadmill workstation significantly increased human metabolic levels and reduced the associated environmental neutral temperatures. Using linear regressions, the predicted neutral temperatures are 24.3 °C (sitting), 23.3 (standing), 22.2 (walking 1 km/h), and 21.1 °C (walking 2 km/h), respectively. The 80% acceptable temperature range varied from 20.5 to 28.2 °C for sitting and standing, 20.0–26.9 °C for walking 1 km/h, and 17.6–26 °C for walking 2 km/h. PMV-PPD model was not able to predict human comfort accurately when using standing or treadmill workstations. Based on our findings, a temperature zone ranging from 20.5 to 26 °C is seen to satisfy the summer thermal requirements for over 80% occupants in a space containing a combination of sitting, standing, and treadmill workstations. However, providing personal comfort control would be necessary, given the substantial inter-individual differences.

Walking Time Is Associated With Hippocampal Volume in Overweight and Obese Office Workers.

Objectives: To investigate the long-term effects on cognition and brain function after installing treadmill workstations in offices for 13 months.Methods: Eighty healthy overweight or obese office workers aged 40–67 years were individually randomized to an intervention group, receiving a treadmill workstation and encouraging emails, or to a control group, continuing to work as usual. Effects on cognitive function, hippocampal volume, prefrontal cortex (PFC) thickness, and circulating brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) were analyzed. Further, mediation analyses between changes in walking time and light-intensity physical activity (LPA) on changes in BDNF and hippocampal volume between baseline and 13 months, and multivariate analyses of the baseline data with percentage sitting time as the response variable, were performed.Results: No group by time interactions were observed for any of the outcomes. In the mediation analyses, positive associations between changes in walking time and LPA on changes in hippocampal volume were observed, although not mediated by changes in BDNF levels. In the multivariate analyses, a negative association between percentage sitting time and hippocampal volume was observed, however only among those older than 51 years of age.Conclusion: Although no group by time interactions were observed, our analyses suggest that increased walking and LPA may have positive effects on hippocampal volume and that sedentary behavior is associated with brain structures of importance for memory functions.Trial Registration: www.ClinicalTrials.gov as NCT01997970.

The Effect Of Treadmill Desk Walking On Creative Thinking

PURPOSE: Most research on treadmill desks in the workplace report no significant change in productivity. However, most of these studies focused on cognitive performance measured by tests in attention, memory or reasoning. While aerobic exercise has been linked to producing a positive effect on creative potential, few studies have tested workplace creativity thinking. The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of treadmill desk walking on convergent and divergent creative thinking. METHODS: Twelve (n=12) male and female college-age students were recruited and completed three tests of creative function: the verbal Guilford’s Alternate Uses Task (VGAT) of divergent thinking, written Guilford’s Alternative Uses Task (WGAT), and the Remote Associations Task (RAT) of convergent thinking. Participants completed all tests while seated at a traditional desk and while walking on a treadmill desk at 1.5 mph. Step length, stride length, and gait cycle were assessed by the OptoGait gait analysis system. A paired sample t-test was used to compare creative test scores and gait variables. RESULTS: There were no significant differences between any test scores while seated and walking (p>0.05). There was no significant difference between baseline gait and divergent thinking (VGAT, WGAT) task gait in any variable (p>0.05). There was a significant increase in step length (p=0.049), stride length (p=0.046), and gait cycle (p=0.039) between the walking only condition and the treadmill desk walking during the RAT. CONCLUSIONS: Results of this study suggest neither convergent nor divergent creative thinking are improved when walking on a treadmill desk. While gait patterns are not changed during divergent thinking, this study suggests gait during convergent thinking may be altered.

The effects of cycle and treadmill desks on work performance and cognitive function in sedentary workers: A review and meta-analysis.

Sedentary behavior has been recognized as an important risk factor in the development of several chronic diseases. Active workstations have been proposed as an effective countermeasure. While such interventions likely reduce sedentary time, concerns regarding the effects on work performance and cognitive function remain. To use meta-analyis to critically evaluate the work performance and cognitive function effects of cycle and treadmill desks as workplace interventions against sedentary behavior. In February 2018, a data search was conducted. Parallel and crossover design studies evaluating workplace interventions compared to conventional seated conditions were included. Eighteen studies met the inclusion criteria. Both interventions reduced typing speed (cycling: SMD = -0.35, p = 0.04; treadmill: SMD = -0.8, p < 0.001). The number of typing errors significantly increased during cycling interventions (SMD = 0.39, p = 0.004). No effect was found for the selective attention tests. However, there was an improvement in recall ability (SMD = 0.68, p = 0.003). Cycle and treadmill desks affect work performance, but most likely not due to a decrease in cognitive function. Further research is needed to determine whether the degree of work performance decline is acceptable, considering the many positive effects of implementing active workstations in the office environment.

The ability to benefit from an intervention to encourage use of treadmill workstations: Experiences of office workers with overweight or obesity.

One way to increase physical activity in offices is to install treadmill workstations, where office workers can walk on a treadmill while performing their normal tasks. However, the experiences of people using these treadmill workstations over a long period of time is not known. In this 13-month study, we explored the experiences of office workers with treadmill workstations available in their offices. After completing a larger randomized controlled trial with 80 office workers ages 40 to 67 years with overweight or obesity, we interviewed 20 participants from the intervention group, using a semi-structured interview guide. Data were analyzed using a grounded theory approach with constant comparison of emerging codes, subcategories, and categories, followed by connecting the categories to create a core category. The core category is described as the “Ability to benefit.” Although all participants had a rather high motivational level and pre-existing knowledge about the health benefits of increasing physical activity at work, they had different capacities for benefiting from the intervention. The categories are described as ideal types: the Convinced, the Competitive, the Responsible, and the Vacillating. These ideal types do not represent any single participant but suggest generalized abstractions of experiences and strategies emerging from the coding of the interviews. One participant could easily have more than one ideal type. Because of differences in ideal type strategies and paths used throughout the course of the study, participants had different abilities to benefit from the intervention. Knowledge regarding the ideal types may be applied to facilitate the use of the treadmill workstations. Because different ideal types might require different prompts for behavior change, tailored intervention strategies directed towards specific ideal types could be necessary.

Workplace interventions for increasing standing or walking for decreasing musculoskeletal symptoms in sedentary workers.

Workplace interventions for increasing standing or walking for decreasing musculoskeletal symptoms in sedentary workers.

Healthy workplaces, active employees: A systematic literature review on impacts of workplace environments on employees’ physical activity and sedentary behavior

Insufficient physical activity (PA) and extensive sedentary behavior (SB) are major global health threats. Workplace interventions, especially the impacts of physical environments, have received limited attention compared to the growing literature linking residential environments with PA/SB. This systematic review examines this understudied topic and proposes a comprehensive conceptual framework for future research and practice.Following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, 87 relevant articles (2000–2017) were identified and reviewed. The results revealed evidence supporting environmental impacts on employees' PA/SB from three spatial scales. At the workstation scale, sit-stand desks, treadmill desks, and stationary high desks were found to reduce SB and increase standing. Work building scale is relatively understudied, and reported correlates include staircase design, overall building design combining multiple PA-friendly strategies, and specific PA amenities (e.g., exercise facilities). On the work neighborhood scale, important correlates include work commute distance and corresponding route characteristics, parking availability and cost, and surrounding neighborhood environments. Assessment of the study quality showed limitations related to selection bias, confounders, difficulty of blinding, and lack of control groups and long-term assessments. The research base is still nascent as to how the workplace environment as a whole, including all three scales, influence PA/SB throughout the workday.This review provides promising support for the potential of promoting active lifestyles through workplace environmental interventions. Future research and practice will be enhanced by a more holistic approach that integrates multiple environmental scales and considers personal and social factors.

Effects of Interrupting Sitting with Use of a Treadmill Desk Versus Prolonged Sitting on Postural Stability.

High amounts of sitting increase the risk of non-communicable disease and mortality. Treadmill desks make it possible to reduce sitting during the desk-based worker's day. This study investigated the acute effect on postural stability of interrupting prolonged sitting with an accumulated 2-h of light-intensity treadmill desk walking. Twenty-one sedentary adults participated in this randomized acute crossover trial, with two 6.5 h conditions: 1) uninterrupted sitting and 2) interrupted sitting with accumulated 2 h light-intensity treadmill desk walking. Pre- and post-condition, participants performed four postural stability tests on a pressure plate (bipedal and unipedal standing stance, eyes open and eyes closed). Anteroposterior center of pressure amplitude showed a significant condition x time interaction in bipedal eyes closed (F(1,20)=4.62, p=0.046) and unipedal eyes open (F(1,20)=9.42, p=0.006) tests, and mediolateral center of pressure amplitude in bipedal eyes closed (F(1,20)=6.12, p=0.023) and bipedal eyes open (F(1,12)=5.55, p=0.029) tests. In the significant interactions, amplitude increased pre to post condition in the uninterrupted sitting condition. The accumulated 2 h light-intensity treadmill desk walking ameliorated the negative effect of 6.5 h prolonged sitting on postural sway, supporting workplace treadmill desk use.

Dual Tasking Using a Treadmill Desk Affects Middle-Aged but Not Young Adults

PURPOSE: Young adults have the capacity to manage dual task conditions with minimal impairment to either the cognitive or the motor task; however, this ability decreases with age. Previous research on dual tasking has primarily examined over ground walking and minimal information is available on dual tasking on a treadmill. The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of dual tasking using a treadmill desk on changes in cognitive performance and gait parameters in young adults (YA) and middle-aged adults (MA). METHODS: YA (n=24; mean age 21.1±1.6 yrs) and MA (n=25; mean age 53.0±5.3 yrs) were recruited to participate in this study. Participants completed five cognitive tests (Stroop Word Color Test, phoneme monitoring, typing test, Sternberg working memory test, and serial 7 subtractions) in a single task (ST) and dual task (DT) condition in a randomized and counterbalanced order. Participants were seated at a desk for ST and walked on a treadmill desk at self-selected speed (mean speed YA=1.5±0.4 mph; MA=1.4±0.5 mph) during DT. An OptoGait system recorded gait parameters of step length, stride length, and coefficient of variation. RESULTS: There were no significant differences in gait parameters or test scores in YA when comparing DT and ST conditions (p>0.05). MA performed worse on word recall score (89.7±11.3 vs 96.6±7.5%, p=0.03), typing speed (44.9±11.2 vs 49.9±13.3 wpm, p=0.00), and Sternberg reaction time (1.5±2.0 vs 1.0±1.9 s, p=0.00) during the DT compared to the ST condition. MA stride length decreased during DT in the Sternberg test (37.7±5.9 vs 36.5±5.3 in, p=0.01) and serial 7 subtractions (37.2±5.7 vs 36.5±5.3 in, p=0.00). MA showed detriments in reaction times on the Stroop test (0.8±1.2 vs 0.6±0.9 s, p=0.00) and Sternberg test (1.5±2.0 vs 0.9±1.5 s, p=0.02) and decreased word recall score (89.7±11.3 vs 97.5±7.0%, p=0.04) compared to YA during the DT condition. CONCLUSION: The impairments in gait and cognitive test scores in MA but not YA suggest that the ability to simultaneously process cognitive demands and treadmill walking requirements decreases with age. Using a treadmill desk might affect work-related performance or gait parameters in middle-aged adults.

The Role Of A Sit-to-stand Workstation And Its Effects On Work Productivity

The prolonged sedentary nature of office work has been shown to induce high levels of discomfort, leading to decreased worker productivity. Many modalities, including ergonomic-adjustable chairs, treadmill desks, and light-activity promotion have been used as interventions to combat worker distress and productivity. The sit-to-stand (STS) workstation is another tool aimed at improving workers’ focus and productivity. PURPOSE: Therefore, the purpose of this study is to evaluate the efficacy of a STS workstation on work productivity. METHODS: All participants were volunteer faculty and staff of the University of Central Oklahoma randomly assigned to a control (n= 10) or STS workstation intervention (n= 8) group. Both groups filled out the Health and Work Performance Questionnaire at the base-line, 6-month, and 12-month mark of the study to measure productivity. Absolute productivity is a subjective measure of an employee's work output. Relative productivity is a subjective comparison of the employee’s work output to another employee in a similar position. The control group was instructed to continue their day as normal while the intervention group was instructed to stand at least 2 hours per work day, if possible. RESULTS: There was no interaction effect for absolute productivity (F2,15=.91, p=.42) from baseline to 12 months with a moderate effect size (0.68). However, a decrease was seen in the control group from baseline (85 +/- 7.07) to post-test (73.08 +/- 28.07) with a strong effect size (1.69), while the STS workstation group increased from baseline (86.25 +/- .88) to post-test (88.75 +/- 8.35). Relative productivity showed no interaction effect as well (F2,15 = .89, p = .44) from baseline to 12 months. The control group saw a decrease from start (1.09 +/- .17) to finish (1.07 +/- .10) while the intervention group saw an increase from start (1.10 +/- .12) to finish (1.19 +/- .26). CONCLUSIONS: Overall, the STS workstation did not show a significant improvement in work productivity compared to the control group. However, a positive trend was seen in the intervention group towards perceived greater work production. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS: This study was funded by the University of Central Oklahoma, Research and Sponsored Programs office and Areawide Aging Agency.

Effects Of Sit-to-stand Desk And Treadmill Workstations On Sedentary Behavior And Physical Activity

PURPOSE: To compare the efficacies of treadmill and sit-to-stand workstations in decreasing daily sedentary behavior (SED) during a 12-month, cluster-randomized trial with an intent to treat design in sedentary overweight office workers. METHODS: Sixty-six office workers (7 male, 59 female, age ± SD = 45.3 ± 12.3 y., BMI ± SD = 32.5 ± 5.7 kg/m2) were cluster randomized to one of 3 groups: (i) seated desk control (C) (N=21), (ii) sit-to-stand desk (D) (N=23), or (iii) treadmill desk (T) (N=22). Change in mean daily SED, standing and stepping time were measured using activPALTM accelerometers adhered to the dominant thigh at baseline (B), month-3 (M3), month-6 (M6) and month-12 (M12). Inclusion in analyses required ≥ 4 valid accelerometer wear days (i.e., ≥ 10 h. of wake wear time). Missing mean daily SED, standing and stepping hours were imputed using multiple-imputation. Between and within group differences in mean daily wake-time spent SED, standing, and stepping after M3, M6 and M12 were analyzed with random intercept mixed linear models accounting for repeated measures and clustering effects. Bonferroni corrections were used during pairwise post-hoc comparisons to correct for multiple hypotheses testing. RESULTS: Mean monitoring time (i.e., mean sensor wear days and daily time) did not significantly vary between or within groups. There were no significant within group changes in mean daily SED time. Mean daily standing time significantly increased in group D from B to M3 (Mean ± SD = 1.03 ± 2.24 h [7.72%], p = 0.03, Cohen’s D = 0.46), which was sustained through M12. Similarly, group T increased mean standing time from B to M3 (Mean ± SD = 1.23 ± 2.56 h [13.28 %], p = 0.025, Cohen’s D = 0.48), but these increases were negated at M12. Mean daily stepping time increased significantly in group D from B to M12 (Mean ± SD = 0.81 ± 1.61 h [2.65 %], p = 0.019, Cohen’s D = 0.50). No significant between group differences in SED, standing or stepping time were observed at M3, M6, or M12. CONCLUSION: Workstation-based workplace interventions may result in moderate short-term daily reductions in SED and increased physical activity among seated office workers. Sustaining these short-term behavioral improvements may not be achievable through passive environmental modifications alone, and may require additional active behavior change strategies.

Assessing Safety, Ease of Use, and Productivity While Using Treadmill Desks: A Pilot and Feasibility Study

Assessing Safety, Ease of Use, and Productivity While Using Treadmill Desks: A Pilot and Feasibility Study

Effects of cycle and treadmill desks on energy expenditure and cardiometabolic parameters in sedentary workers: review and meta-analysis

Purpose. The aim of this article was to evaluate the effects of cycle and treadmill desks on energy expenditure and cardiovascular and biochemical indicators in sedentary workers. Materials and methods. In February 2018, six databases were searched. Both parallel and crossover design studies evaluating workplace cycle and treadmill desks compared to a conventional seated condition were included. Results. Twenty-two studies met the inclusion criteria. Cycle and treadmill desks significantly increased energy expenditure (standard mean difference [SMD] = 3.84, p < 0.001, I 2 = 95%) and the heart rate (SMD = 1.68, p < 0.001, I 2 = 91%), and lowered blood glucose and insulin levels (SMD = –0.54, p < 0.001, I 2 = 0% and SMD = –3.13, p < 0.001, I 2 = 76%, respectively). The interventions had no effect on blood pressure and other biochemical indicators. Conclusion. Cycle and treadmill desks may positively influence energy expenditure in sedentary workers and could be effective for reducing negative effects of workplace-related sedentary behaviour. However, considerable heterogeneity is present in the measuring protocols for energy expenditure.