Treading Damage Research Articles

Effect of cattle treading on interrill erosion from hill pasture: modelling concepts and analysis of rainfall simulator data

Damage to pasture as a result of intensive grazing and treading by cattle increases the erosion of sediment and associated nutrients. In this study we present a model for the effect of treading damage on interrill erosion. The model formulation is based on the interrill erosion components of conventional process-based erosion models, with some modifications. The model was developed using data from small rainfall simulator plots (0.5 m2) on hill-country pasture in New Zealand with varying amounts of treading damage. Treading increased the amount of bare ground, and this resulted in increased concentrations of sediment in runoff. Concentration was found to increase linearly with the amount of bare ground. Treading resulted in increased runoff, which had some effect on sediment concentration for the high runoff rates in the experiments, but would have a negligible effect on concentration for typical natural runoff rates. However, the increased runoff results in greater sediment loads because a larger volume of sediment-laden runoff is produced. The increase in runoff was modelled through a reduction factor for the hydraulic conductivity which varied linearly with the fraction of damaged ground. For 100% damaged ground the hydraulic conductivity was approximately halved. The recovery of bare ground and damaged ground over time after treading was also assessed. Bare ground resulting from treading typically halved after 2 months, while damage took longer to recover. Such treading-related effects are superimposed on seasonal variations in erodibility, bare ground, and infiltration capacity. Based on the results of the study, some measures to reduce treading-related erosion are suggested.

Cattle Treading Effects on Sediment Loss and Water Infiltration

To quantify effects of forage canopy properties, soil surface relief, and hill slope on the hydrologic properties of the soil in a New Zealand hill land pasture, duplicate plots (15 x 3 m) with 3 canopy heights (6, 20, and 47 mm) were trodden with 0, 4, or 8 mature cows for 40 min on a moderate (15-18 degrees) slope (Trial 1), and similar plots with the low and high canopy heights were trodden by 8 mature cows for 40 min on gentle (8-14 degrees), moderate (15-18 degrees), or moderately steep (20-25 degrees) slopes (Trial 2). Pre- and post-treading measurements included canopy heights; bare soil proportions; soil moisture contents; hoof prints and skids; roughness coefficients, surface water detention storage volumes, and soil clump volumes with a 38-pin contometer; and water infiltration and sediment loss by rainfall simulation. In Trial 1, increasing canopy height resulted in lower (P < 0.01) proportions of bare ground, roughness coefficients, soil clump volumes, and sediment losses. Increasing treading damage resulted in higher (P < 0.05) post-treading roughness coefficients, proportions of bare ground, hoof print and skid densities, surface water detention volumes, and soil clump volumes. In Trial 2, soil hydrologic properties did not differ between canopy height or hill slope treatments. In the two trials, water infiltration rate was significantly related to the roughness coefficient (r2 = 0.31) and the number of hoof prints (r2 = 0.26). Results imply that a 20-mm canopy height of the forage species common on a New Zealand hill land pasture is adequate to minimize the effects of a short-term treading event on soil water infiltration rate and sediment loss. DOI:10.2458/azu_jrm_v54i2_russell

Cattle treading effects on sediment loss and water infiltration

To quantify effects of forage canopy properties, soil surface relief, and hill slope on the hydrologic properties of the soil in a New Zealand hill land pasture, duplicate plots (15 x 3 m) with 3 canopy heights (6, 20, and 47 mm) were trodden with 0, 4, or 8 mature cows for 40 min on a moderate (15-18 degrees) slope (Trial 1), and similar plots with the low and high canopy heights were trodden by 8 mature cows for 40 min on gentle (8-14 degrees), moderate (15-18 degrees), or moderately steep (20-25 degrees) slopes (Trial 2). Pre- and post-treading measurements included canopy heights; bare soil proportions; soil moisture contents; hoof prints and skids; roughness coefficients, surface water detention storage volumes, and soil clump volumes with a 38-pin contometer; and water infiltration and sediment loss by rainfall simulation. In Trial 1, increasing canopy height resulted in lower (P &lt; 0.01) proportions of bare ground, roughness coefficients, soil clump volumes, and sediment losses. Increasing treading damage resulted in higher (P &lt; 0.05) post-treading roughness coefficients, proportions of bare ground, hoof print and skid densities, surface water detention volumes, and soil clump volumes. In Trial 2, soil hydrologic properties did not differ between canopy height or hill slope treatments. In the two trials, water infiltration rate was significantly related to the roughness coefficient (r2 = 0.31) and the number of hoof prints (r2 = 0.26). Results imply that a 20-mm canopy height of the forage species common on a New Zealand hill land pasture is adequate to minimize the effects of a short-term treading event on soil water infiltration rate and sediment loss.

A survey of soil physical properties on sheep and dairy farms in southern New Zealand

The study compared soil macroporosity, bulk density, air permeability, and hydraulic conductivity on 97 sheep and 87 dairy farm sites surveyed in Southland and South Otago, New Zealand. Soil physical properties of 4 soil groups (15 soils) were investigated. Soils on sheep farms surveyed had significantly greater air permeability than soils on dairy farms, averaged over 0–15 cm. Soils on sheep farms had significantly greater saturated hydraulic conductivity (86 mm h‐1 and 26 mm h‐1) than soils on dairy farms (32 mm h‐1and 10 mm h‐1), at 0–5 cm and 10–15 cm, respectively. Macroporosity decreased from 0–5 cm to 5–10 cm, at a significantly greater rate on dairy farms (by 3.6% v/v) than sheep farms (by 1.5% v/v). Bulk density increased between 0–5 cm and 5–10 cm by a greater amount for dairy farms (0.16 Mg m‐3) than for sheep farms (0.12 Mg m‐3). Macroporosity on some Fragic Pallic Soils was considered limiting for plant growth, while Firm Brown Soils were regarded as well structured and most likely to resist treading damage.

Impact of cattle treading on hill land: 2. Soil physical properties and contaminant runoff

A simulated rainfall study carried out as part of a larger grazing experiment was conducted to investigate the effects of a 2–3 day cattle‐treading event in winter on soil physical properties and contaminant (sediment and nutrient) runoff in topographically variable hill land. Measurements were made on two land zones: easy contoured ridges and gullies (15–24° slope) and steep inter‐track land (28–39° slope). Simulated rainfall was applied to 16 plots (0.5 m2) with a range of treading damage for each land zone within 14 days of the treading event. Simulated rainfall was repeated on the same plots in the following summer and winter to assess the recovery of soil from treading damage. Treading damage reduced water infiltration rate, particularly in the steep zone. It also caused a significant increase in the transport of suspended solids (SS), total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN), and total phosphorus (TP) from the plots during simulated runoff. On the steep inter‐track zone, damaged areas had a 46% lower infiltration rate, and runoff from these areas contained on average 87% more sediment, and 89% more N and 94% more P compared with undamaged areas. These effects had disappeared six months later. The rainfall simulation and soil physical studies show that a 2–3 day winter treading event may increase soil bulk density, reduce soil macroporosity and total porosity, and lead to a decrease in the water infiltration rate and an increase in contaminant runoff.

Modelling animal treading impacts on infiltration rate

Sediment and chemical losses in surface runoff can be significant on land with rolling topography. These effects can be more severe in grazed pasture systems because of animal treading damage to the ground surface. The phenomenon of treading includes soil compaction, pugging, creating tracks and surface cracking. Modelling results presented in the paper provide estimation of changes in water infiltration rate with land of different topography, soil physical condition, season and grazing. These models were derived from field data collected over 3 years and were specified for micro-sites (0.5 m2). The modelling results identified that micro-site infiltration analysis was appropriate to land with complex grazing and topographic conditions. The correlation between the model estimation and field measures was up to 73% (adjusted R2). Keywords: animal treading, infiltration rate, soil compaction, runoff, cellular automata, spatial modelling

Impact of beef cattle grazing systems on treading damage and forage supply

Levels of treading damage were measured for a range of cattle feeding regimes and grazing managements which were compared during winter and spring. These paddock- and systems-based results provide a context within which component research on soil and plants can be interpreted. Soil surface damage was higher in farmlets with heavier cattle (390 kg vs. 200 kg steers) and on paddocks where feeding was restricted through the use of a slow rotation (100-120 days vs. 35-45 days). Where cattle grazed under wet conditions, with a pre- and post- grazing herbage mass of 2400 and 650 kg DM/ha respectively, damage levels reached 60-70% of the soil surface. Under these conditions, 300-350 kg DM/ha of initial forage on offer was pushed onto or into the surface soil; and pasture growth rates during early-mid spring would be reduced by 10 kg DM/ha/day. In practice the objective of grazing plans and management should be to minimise these negative impacts within the constraints of the required feeding regimes. Recommendations are made for the alignment of stock class and enterprise with land capabilities and the feed allocation processes of a winter rotation. Keywords: cattle grazing systems, forage supply treading damage

Stolons and rhizomes in tall fescue under grazing

Levels of treading damage were measured for a range of cattle feeding regimes and grazing managements which were compared during winter and spring. These paddock- and systems-based results provide a context within which component research on soil and plants can be interpreted. Soil surface damage was higher in farmlets with heavier cattle (390 kg vs. 200 kg steers) and on paddocks where feeding was restricted through the use of a slow rotation (100-120 days vs. 35-45 days). Where cattle grazed under wet conditions, with a pre- and post- grazing herbage mass of 2400 and 650 kg DM/ha respectively, damage levels reached 60-70% of the soil surface. Under these conditions, 300-350 kg DM/ha of initial forage on offer was pushed onto or into the surface soil; and pasture growth rates during early-mid spring would be reduced by 10 kg DM/ha/day. In practice the objective of grazing plans and management should be to minimise these negative impacts within the constraints of the required feeding regimes. Recommendations are made for the alignment of stock class and enterprise with land capabilities and the feed allocation processes of a winter rotation. Keywords: cattle grazing systems, forage supply treading damage

Effect of grazing severity on grass utilization and milk production of rotationally grazed dairy cows

AbstractTwo experiments were carried out to examine the effects of grazing severity on the performance of January/February calved British Friesian dairy cows. In Experiment 1, three groups of cows were rotationally grazed across twenty‐four one‐day paddocks with high (H), medium (M) or low (L) herbage allowances. Cows on treatment M were offered a daily herbage allowance designed to achieve a residual sward height of 50 mm, assessed by a rising‐plate sward stick. The daily herbage allowance (g organic matter (kg live‐weight)‐1 on treatments L and H were 0.30 below and above that for M, respectively, to give residual sward heights of 42 and 59 mm. In Experiment 2, three groups of cows were grazed across twenty‐four one‐day paddocks to obtain residual sward heights of 50 mm (severe), 60 mm (moderate) and 80 mm (lax).Average milk yields on the L, M and H treatments in Experiment 1 were 11.8, 14.6 and 14.5 kg d,‐1 and in Experiment 2 they were 13.7, 16.0 and 17.0 kg d‐1 on the severe, moderate and lax treatments, respectively. The results indicate that the critical herbage height below which milk production per cow declines may vary with the production potential of the animal. There were no significant treatment effects on milk composition.Milk output ha‐1 and utilized metabolizable energy ha‐1 were greatest with the low herbage allowance in Experiment I and the moderate treatment in Experiment 2. Net herbage accumulation on the severe treatment in Experiment 2 was 30% lower than that on the lax treatment, as a result of treading damage in early season.It is concluded that, in a rotational grazing system, a reasonable compromise between sward utilization and animal performance can be achieved by grazing January/February calved cows to a residual sward height of 60 mm as assessed by a rising‐plate sward stick. This is equivalent to a sward surface height of about 80 mm.

Influence of fertiliser and grazing management on North Island moist hill country 4. Pasture species abundance

Abstract A grazing trial was conducted on steep, moist, low fertility hill country in the southern Hawke's Bay during 1975–81. There were 2 fertiliser treatments: low (LF) and high (HF) superphosphate application (plus lime on HF), and 3 grazing managements — rotational grazing by sheep (RGS) or cattle (RGC), and set stocking by sheep (SSS). Annual measurements of pasture species abundance (plant unit density and size) were made in each year during 1976–81. Density of plant units was greater in HF than LF (27.8 cf. 25.3 × 103/m2) pastures and, for the 3 different grazing managements, SSS > RGS > RGC (30.1, 25.2, and 17.1 × 103/m2 respectively). In addition, plant density decreased with increasing slope of measurement site, and was influenced by aspect. In most instances, lower plant unit density was compensated for by increases in plant unit size, in accordance with the ‘3/2 thinning law’. This did not occur under RGC because of severe treading damage, and the depression in herbage accumulation rate in th...

Factors affecting the susceptibility of 3 soils in the Manawatu to stock treading

Abstract Stock treading damage decreases farm productivity by affecting plant growth, soil properties, feed utilisation, and animal health. Three soils that differed markedly in susceptibility to treading damage were studied. Ramiha silt loam had a low susceptibility because of low stocking rates, a protective pasture cover, strongly developed soil structure, and good profile drainage. Tokomaru silt loam had a high susceptibility because of intensive stocking rates and poor drainage. Manawatu fine sandy loam was intermediate as it had weak structural stability but good drainage. In the field there was a loss of soil macroporosity which correlated well with field reports of treading damage. Soil bulk density and total porosity were not useful indications of treading damage and hence did not correlate with field experience. The similar relationships found between resistance to penetration and matric potential indicates that all 3 soils are susceptible to treading damage when very wet. However, differences i...

A note on the effect of sheep grazing on the yield of grass swards

Herbage yield obtained from grass swards is influenced by the presence of grazing animals (Brockman, Rope &amp; Stevens, 1971a, b; Holmes, 1968; Shaw, Brockman &amp; Wolton, 1966). The net effect of grazing in a particular situation depends on the balance between the effects of excretal-N return, which tends to increase yields (Brockman &amp; Wolton, 1963) and those of treading and other sward damage, which tend to reduce yields (Edmond, 1970). This net grazing effect on yield can be measured by comparing yields of cut and grazed swards under management that is in all other respects identical (Shaw et al. 1966). Available data have been examined to obtain quantitative estimates of the net effect of grazing and of the changes in these effects that occur with changes in sward N supply.

Changes in a browntop-perennial ryegrass-white clover pasture trodden by sheep from october to march 1966-67

Abstract Botanical and yield changes in a mixed browntop-perennial ryegrass-white clover pasture trodden by sheep at seven rates from October to March 1966-67 were assessed. Residual effects and recovery from these treadings were measured from April to September 1967. For the treatment period (October to March) all treading rates significantly reduced total yield below that of not-trodden (control) plots. At a treading rate of 118.6 sheep equivalents per ha, damage to browntop and white clover reduced yield by 61%. During the post-treatment period (April to September) total yields did not show any residual effects of previous treading, but ryegrass yields were significantly highest in plots previously trodden at 88.9 sheep equivalents per ha. Because of death of browntop tillers and white clover nodes from treading damage, there was ingress of low producing Poa annua.

PASTURE GROWTH AT MODERATE STOCKING RATES

IN APRIL, 1961, the writer was invited by I. McQueen, Dairy Farm Supervisor, Massey University of Manawatu, to assist in investigating two systems for the wintering of dry dairy cows. The need for this occurred on the No. 3 (Bourke) Dairy Farm, where wet soil was unstable in winter and spring. It was difficult to utilize pasture growth and avoid treading damage (Edmond, 1963), a problem common to most dairy farms.