TRAPPIST-1 Planets Research Articles

Updated Forecast for TRAPPIST-1 Times of Transit for All Seven Exoplanets Incorporating JWST Data

The TRAPPIST-1 system has been extensively observed with JWST in the near-infrared with the goal of detecting atmospheric transit transmission spectra of these temperate, Earth-sized exoplanets. A byproduct has been much more precise times of transit compared with prior available data from Spitzer, Hubble Space Telescope, or ground-based telescopes. In this note we use 23 new timing measurements of all seven planets in the near-infrared from five JWST observing programs to better forecast and constrain the future times of transit in this system. In particular, we note that the transit times of TRAPPIST-1h have drifted significantly from a prior published analysis by up to tens of minutes. Our newer forecast has a higher precision, with uncertainties ranging from 7 to 105 s during JWST Cycles 4 and 5. This forecast will help to improve planning of future observations of the TRAPPIST-1 planets, while we postpone a full dynamical analysis to future work.

Drifts of the substellar points of the TRAPPIST-1 planets

Accurate modeling of tidal interactions is crucial for interpreting recent JWST observations of the thermal emissions of TRAPPIST-1 b and c and for characterizing the surface conditions and potential habitability of the other planets in the system. Indeed, the rotation state of the planets, driven by tidal forces, significantly influences the heat redistribution regime. Due to their proximity to their host star and the estimated age of the system, the TRAPPIST-1 planets are commonly assumed to be in a synchronization state. In this work, we present the recent implementation of the co-planar tidal torque and forces equations within the formalism of Kaula in the N-body code Posidonius. This enables us to explore the hypothesis of synchronization using a tidal model well suited to rocky planets. We studied the rotational state of each planet by taking into account their multi-layer internal structure computed with the code Burnman. Our simulations show that the TRAPPIST-1 planets are not perfectly synchronized but oscillate around the synchronization state. Planet-planet interactions lead to strong variations on the mean motion and tides fail to keep the spin synchronized with respect to the mean motion. As a result, the substellar point of each planet experiences short oscillations and long-timescale drifts that lead the planets to achieve a synodic day with periods varying from $55$ years to $290$ years depending on the planet.

A formation pathway for terrestrial planets with moderate water content involving atmospheric-volatile recycling

Of the many recently discovered terrestrial exoplanets, some are expected to harbor moderate water mass fractions of a few percent. The formation pathways that can produce planets with these water mass fractions are not fully understood. Here, we use the code chemcomp which consists of a semi-analytical 1D protoplanetary disk model harboring a migrating and accreting planet, to model the growth and composition of planets with moderate water mass fractions by pebble accretion in a protoplanetary disk around a TRAPPIST-1 analog star. This star is accompanied by seven terrestrial planets, of which the outer four planets likely contain water mass fractions of between 1<!PCT!> and 10<!PCT!>. We adopt a published model that considers the evaporation of pebbles in the planetary envelope, from where recycling flows can transport the volatile vapor back into the disk. We find that with this model, the planetary water content depends on the influx rate of pebbles onto the planet. A decreasing pebble influx with time reduces the envelope temperature and consequently allows the formation of planets with moderate water mass fractions as inferred for the outer TRAPPIST-1 planets for a number of different simulation configurations. This is further evidence that the recycling of vapor is an important component of planet formation needed to explain the vast and diverse population of exoplanets.

LHS 1140 b Is a Potentially Habitable Water World

LHS 1140 b is a small planet orbiting in the habitable zone of its M4.5V dwarf host. Recent mass and radius constraints have indicated that it has either a thick H2-rich atmosphere or substantial water by mass. Here we present a transmission spectrum of LHS 1140 b between 1.7 and 5.2 μm, obtained using the NIRSpec instrument on JWST. By combining spectral retrievals and self-consistent atmospheric models, we show that the transmission spectrum is inconsistent with H2-rich atmospheres with varied size and metallicity, leaving a water world as the remaining scenario to explain the planet’s low density. Specifically, a H2-rich atmosphere would result in prominent spectral features of CH4 or CO2 on this planet, but they are not seen in the transmission spectrum. Instead, the data favor a high mean molecular weight atmosphere (possibly N2 dominated with H2O and CO2) with a modest confidence. Forming the planet by accreting C- and N-bearing ices could naturally give rise to a CO2- or N2-dominated atmosphere, and if the planet evolves to or has the climate-stabilizing mechanism to maintain a moderate-size CO2/N2-dominated atmosphere, the planet could have liquid-water oceans. Our models suggest CO2 absorption features with an expected signal of 20 ppm at 4.2 μm. As the existence of an atmosphere on TRAPPIST-1 planets is uncertain, LHS 1140 b may well present the best current opportunity to detect and characterize a habitable world.

The effect of lightning on the atmospheric chemistry of exoplanets and potential biosignatures

Context. Lightning has been suggested to play a role in triggering the occurrence of bio-ready chemical species. Future missions such as PLATO, ARIEL, HWO, and LIFE, as well as ground-based extremely large telescopes (ELTs), will carry out investigations of the atmospheres of potentially habitable exoplanets. Aims. We aim to study the effect of lightning on the atmospheric chemistry. We also consider how it affects false-positive and false-negative biosignatures and whether these effects would be observable on exo-Earth and TRAPPIST-1 planets. Methods. We utilised a combination of laboratory experiments and photochemical and radiative transfer modelling. We conducted spark discharge experiments in N2−CO2−H2 gas mixtures, representing a range of possible rocky-planet atmospheres. We investigated the production of potential lightning signatures (CO and NO), possible biosignature gases (N2O, NH3, and CH4), and important prebiotic precursors (HCN and urea). Using the measured CO and NO production rates, we conducted photochemical simulations for oxygen-rich and anoxic atmospheres for rocky planets orbiting in the habitable zones of the Sun and TRAPPIST-1 for a range of lightning flash rates. Synthetic spectra were calculated using SMART to study the atmosphere’s reflectance, along with the emission and transmission spectra. Results. Lightning enhances the spectral features of NO, NO2, and (in some cases) CO through direct production; whereas CH4 and C2H6 may be enhanced indirectly. Lightning at a flash rate slightly higher than on modern-day Earth is able to mask the ozone features of an oxygen-rich, biotic atmosphere, making it harder to detect the biosphere of such a planet. Similarly, lightning at a flash rate at least ten times higher than on modern-day Earth is also able to mask the presence of ozone in the anoxic, abiotic atmosphere of a planet orbiting a late M dwarf, reducing the potential for a false-positive life detection. Conclusions. The threshold lightning flash rates to eliminate oxygen (>0.1%) and ozone false positive biosignatures on planets orbiting ultra-cool dwarfs is up to ten times higher than the modern flash rate. This result indicates that lightning cannot always prevent these false-positive scenarios.

Gliese 12 b: A Temperate Earth-sized Planet at 12 pc Ideal for Atmospheric Transmission Spectroscopy

Recent discoveries of Earth-sized planets transiting nearby M dwarfs have made it possible to characterize the atmospheres of terrestrial planets via follow-up spectroscopic observations. However, the number of such planets receiving low insolation is still small, limiting our ability to understand the diversity of the atmospheric composition and climates of temperate terrestrial planets. We report the discovery of an Earth-sized planet transiting the nearby (12 pc) inactive M3.0 dwarf Gliese 12 (TOI-6251) with an orbital period (P orb) of 12.76 days. The planet, Gliese 12 b, was initially identified as a candidate with an ambiguous P orb from TESS data. We confirmed the transit signal and P orb using ground-based photometry with MuSCAT2 and MuSCAT3, and validated the planetary nature of the signal using high-resolution images from Gemini/NIRI and Keck/NIRC2 as well as radial velocity (RV) measurements from the InfraRed Doppler instrument on the Subaru 8.2 m telescope and from CARMENES on the CAHA 3.5 m telescope. X-ray observations with XMM-Newton showed the host star is inactive, with an X-ray-to-bolometric luminosity ratio of logLX/Lbol≈−5.7 . Joint analysis of the light curves and RV measurements revealed that Gliese 12 b has a radius of 0.96 ± 0.05 R ⊕, a 3σ mass upper limit of 3.9 M ⊕, and an equilibrium temperature of 315 ± 6 K assuming zero albedo. The transmission spectroscopy metric (TSM) value of Gliese 12 b is close to the TSM values of the TRAPPIST-1 planets, adding Gliese 12 b to the small list of potentially terrestrial, temperate planets amenable to atmospheric characterization with JWST.

Airy worlds or barren rocks? On the survivability of secondary atmospheres around the TRAPPIST-1 planets

Context. The James Webb Space Telescope is currently at the forefront of the search for atmospheres of exoplanets. However, the observation of atmospheres of Earth-like planets pushes the limits of the instruments, and often, multiple observations must be combined. As with most instruments, telescope time is unfortunately extremely limited. Over the course of cycle 1, approximately 100 hours have been dedicated to the TRAPPIST-1 planets. This system is therefore studied in unusually great detail. However, the first two sets of observations of the innermost two planets show that these planets most likely lack a thick atmosphere. The question therefore arises whether terrestrial planets around M stars have atmospheres or do not have atmospheres at all. Aims. We aim to determine the atmospheric survivability of the TRAPPIST-1 planets by modelling the response of the upper atmosphere to incoming stellar high-energy radiation. Through this case study, we also aim to learn more about rocky planet atmospheres in the habitable zone around low-mass M dwarfs. Methods. We simulated the upper atmospheres of the TRAPPIST-1 planets using the Kompot code, which is a self-consistent thermo-chemical code. Specifically, we studied the atmospheric mass loss due to Jeans escape induced by stellar high-energy radiation. This was achieved through a grid of models that account for the differences in planetary properties and irradiances of the TRAPPIST-1 planets, as well as different atmospheric properties. This grid allows for the explorations of the different factors influencing atmospheric loss. Results. The present-day irradiance of the TRAPPIST-1 planets would lead to the loss of an Earth’s atmosphere within just some hundreds of million years. When we take into account the much more active early stages of a low-mass M dwarf, the planets undergo a period of even more extreme mass loss, regardless of planetary mass or atmospheric composition. Conclusions. The losses calculated in this work indicate that it is unlikely that any significant atmosphere could survive for any extended amount of time around any of the TRAPPIST-1 planets based on present-day irradiance levels. The assumptions used here allow us to generalise the results, and we conclude that the results tentatively indicate that this conclusion applies to all Earth-like planets in the habitable zones of low-mass M dwarfs.

Fundamentals for habitable scenarios for Earth-like planets in the TRAPPIST-1 system

ABSTRACT The characterization of rocky exoplanets in the Habitable Zone (HZ) of their stars has entered a new era with the launch of the JWST. The TRAPPIST-1 star system is a particularly interesting target for observations, with its seven Earth-sized planets. An insightful body of work for a wide range of atmospheres has shown them to be intriguing candidates for analysis to learn more about terrestrial planets and their evolution. However, unknowns remain in analyses of changing conditions for planets with Earth-analogue atmospheres (N2-CO2-H2O) for the whole system, as well as what spectral features JWST could search for in such environments. Here, we explore the specific question of how rocky Earth-analogue planets could evolve at the position of the TRAPPIST-1 planets and assess the conditions that could lead to surface temperatures above freezing for the planets in the HZ. We found that three of the seven planets could provide warm surface conditions for Earth-analogue atmospheres. Our models show marked differences in the resulting transmission spectra. The first JWST observation of the atmosphere for TRAPPIST-1 planets have recently been published to exclude widely extended atmospheres without clouds, but more observations are needed to put constrains on models for terrestrial atmospheres.

Spin Dynamics of Planets in Resonant Chains

About a dozen exoplanetary systems have been discovered with three or more planets participating in a sequence of mean-motion resonances. The unique and complex architectures of these so-called “resonant chains” motivate efforts to characterize their planets holistically. In this work, we perform a comprehensive exploration of the spin-axis dynamics of planets in resonant chains. Planetary spin states are closely linked with atmospheric dynamics and habitability and are thus especially relevant to resonant chains like TRAPPIST-1, which hosts several temperate planets. Considering a set of observed resonant chains, we calculate the equilibrium states of the planetary axial tilts (“obliquities”). We show that high-obliquity states exist for ∼60% of planets in our sample, and many of these states can be stable in the presence of tidal dissipation. Using case studies of two observed systems (Kepler-223 and TOI-1136), we demonstrate how these high-obliquity states could have been attained during the initial epoch of disk-driven orbital migration that established the resonant orbital architectures. We show that the TRAPPIST-1 planets most likely have zero obliquities, with the possible exception of planet d. Overall, our results highlight that both the orbital and spin states of resonant chains are valuable relics of the early stages of planet formation and evolution.

The Carbon-deficient Evolution of TRAPPIST-1c

Transiting planets orbiting M dwarfs provide the best opportunity to study the atmospheres of rocky planets with current facilities. As JWST enters its second year of science operations, an important initial endeavor is to determine whether these rocky planets have atmospheres at all. M dwarfs are thought to pose a major threat to planetary atmospheres due to their high magnetic activity over timescales of several billion years, and might completely strip atmospheres. Several Cycle 1 and 2 General Observers and Guaranteed Time Observations programs are testing this hypothesis, observing a series of rocky planets to determine whether they retained their atmospheres. A key case study is TRAPPIST-1c, which receives almost the same bolometric flux as Venus. We might therefore expect TRAPPIST-1c to possess a thick, CO2-dominated atmosphere. Instead, Zieba et al. show that it has little to no CO2 in its atmosphere. To interpret these results, we run coupled time-dependent simulations of planetary outgassing and atmospheric escape to model the evolution of TRAPPIST-1c's atmosphere. We find that the stellar wind stripping that is expected to occur on TRAPPIST-1c over its lifetime can only remove up to ∼16 bar of CO2, less than the modern CO2 inventory of either Earth or Venus. Therefore, we infer that TRAPPIST-1c either formed volatile-poor, as compared to Earth and Venus, or lost a substantial amount of CO2 during an early phase of hydrodynamic hydrogen escape. Finally, we scale our results for the other TRAPPIST-1 planets, finding that the more distant TRAPPIST-1 planets may readily retain atmospheres.

Atmospheric Reconnaissance of TRAPPIST-1 b with JWST/NIRISS: Evidence for Strong Stellar Contamination in the Transmission Spectra

TRAPPIST-1 is a nearby system of seven Earth-sized, temperate, rocky exoplanets transiting a Jupiter-sized M8.5V star, ideally suited for in-depth atmospheric studies. Each TRAPPIST-1 planet has been observed in transmission both from space and from the ground, confidently rejecting cloud-free, hydrogen-rich atmospheres. Secondary eclipse observations of TRAPPIST-1 b with JWST/MIRI are consistent with little to no atmosphere given the lack of heat redistribution. Here we present the first transmission spectra of TRAPPIST-1 b obtained with JWST/NIRISS over two visits. The two transmission spectra show moderate to strong evidence of contamination from unocculted stellar heterogeneities, which dominates the signal in both visits. The transmission spectrum of the first visit is consistent with unocculted starspots and the second visit exhibits signatures of unocculted faculae. Fitting the stellar contamination and planetary atmosphere either sequentially or simultaneously, we confirm the absence of cloud-free, hydrogen-rich atmospheres, but cannot assess the presence of secondary atmospheres. We find that the uncertainties associated with the lack of stellar model fidelity are one order of magnitude above the observation precision of 89 ppm (combining the two visits). Without affecting the conclusion regarding the atmosphere of TRAPPIST-1 b, this highlights an important caveat for future explorations, which calls for additional observations to characterize stellar heterogeneities empirically and/or theoretical works to improve model fidelity for such cool stars. This need is all the more justified as stellar contamination can affect the search for atmospheres around the outer, cooler TRAPPIST-1 planets for which transmission spectroscopy is currently the most efficient technique.

Libration- and Precession-driven Dissipation in the Fluid Cores of the TRAPPIST-1 Planets

The seven planets orbiting TRAPPIST-1 have sizes and masses similar to Earth and mean densities that suggest that their interior structures are comprised of a fluid iron core and rocky mantle. Here we use idealized analytical models to compute estimates of the viscous dissipation in the fluid cores of the TRAPPIST-1 planets induced by mantle libration and precession. The dissipation induced by the libration at orbital periods is largest for TRAPPIST-1b, of the order of 600 MW, and decreases with orbital distance, to values of 5–500 W for TRAPPIST-1h, depending on its triaxial shape. Extrapolating these results to the larger libration amplitudes expected at longer periods, dissipation may perhaps be as high as 1 TW in TRAPPIST-1b. Orbital precession induces a misalignment between the spin axes of the fluid core and mantle of a planet, the amplitude of which depends on the resonant amplification of its free precession and free core nutation. Assuming Cassini states, we show that the dissipation from this misalignment can reach a few TW for planets e and f. Our dissipation estimates are lower bounds, as we neglect ohmic dissipation, which may dominate if the fluid cores of the TRAPPIST-1 planets sustain magnetic fields. Our results suggest that dissipation induced by precession can be of the same order as tidal dissipation for the outermost planets, may perhaps be sufficient to supply the power to a generate a magnetic field in their liquid cores, and likely played an important role in the evolution of the TRAPPIST-1 system.

A cool runaway greenhouse without surface magma ocean.

Water vapour atmospheres with content equivalent to the Earth's oceans, resulting from impacts1 or a high insolation2,3, were found to yield a surface magma ocean4,5. This was, however, a consequence of assuming a fully convective structure2-11. Here, we report using a consistent climate model that pure steam atmospheres are commonly shaped by radiative layers, making their thermal structure strongly dependent on the stellar spectrum and internal heat flow. The surface is cooler when an adiabatic profile is not imposed; melting Earth's crust requires an insolation several times higher than today, which will not happen during the main sequence of the Sun. Venus's surface can solidify before the steam atmosphere escapes, which is the opposite of previous works4,5. Around the reddest stars (Teff < 3,000 K), surface magma oceans cannot form by stellar forcing alone, whatever the water content. These findings affect observable signatures of steam atmospheres and exoplanet mass-radius relationships, drastically changing current constraints on the water content of TRAPPIST-1 planets. Unlike adiabatic structures, radiative-convective profiles are sensitive to opacities. New measurements of poorly constrained high-pressure opacities, in particular far from the H2O absorption bands, are thus necessary to refine models of steam atmospheres, which are important stages in terrestrial planet evolution.

ExoMDN: Rapid characterization of exoplanet interior structures with mixture density networks

Aims. Characterizing the interior structure of exoplanets is essential for understanding their diversity, formation, and evolution. As the interior of exoplanets is inaccessible to observations, an inverse problem must be solved, where numerical structure models need to conform to observable parameters such as mass and radius. This is a highly degenerate problem whose solution often relies on computationally expensive and time-consuming inference methods such as Markov chain Monte Carlo. Methods. We present ExoMDN, a machine-learning model for the interior characterization of exoplanets based on mixture density networks (MDN). The model is trained on a large dataset of more than 5.6 million synthetic planets below 25 Earth masses consisting of an iron core, a silicate mantle, a water and high-pressure ice layer, and a H/He atmosphere. We employ log-ratio transformations to convert the interior structure data into a form that the MDN can easily handle. Results. Given mass, radius, and equilibrium temperature, we show that ExoMDN can deliver a full posterior distribution of mass fractions and thicknesses of each planetary layer in under a second on a standard Intel i5 CPU. Observational uncertainties can be easily accounted for through repeated predictions from within the uncertainties. We used ExoMDN to characterize the interiors of 22 confirmed exoplanets with mass and radius uncertainties below 10 and 5%, respectively, including the well studied GJ 1214 b, GJ 486 b, and the TRAPPIST-1 planets. We discuss the inclusion of the fluid Love number k2 as an additional (potential) observable, showing how it can significantly reduce the degeneracy of interior structures. Utilizing the fast predictions of ExoMDN, we show that measuring k2 with an accuracy of 10% can constrain the thickness of core and mantle of an Earth analog to ≈13% of the true values.

Composition constraints of the TRAPPIST-1 planets from their formation

ABSTRACT We study the formation of the TRAPPIST-1 (T1) planets starting shortly after Moon-sized bodies form just exterior to the ice line. Our model includes mass growth from pebble accretion and mergers, fragmentation, type-I migration, and eccentricity and inclination dampening from gas drag. We follow the composition evolution of the planets fed by a dust condensation code that tracks how various dust species condense out of the disc as it cools. We use the final planet compositions to calculate the resulting radii of the planets using a new planet interior structure code and explore various interior structure models. Our model reproduces the broader architecture of the T1 system and constrains the initial water mass fraction of the early embryos and the final relative abundances of the major refractory elements. We find that the inner two planets likely experienced giant impacts and fragments from collisions between planetary embryos often seed the small planets that subsequently grow through pebble accretion. Using our composition constraints, we find solutions for a two-layer model, a planet comprised of only a core and mantle, that match observed bulk densities for the two inner planets b and c. This, along with the high number of giant impacts the inner planets experienced, is consistent with recent observations that these planets are likely desiccated. However, two-layer models seem unlikely for most of the remaining outer planets, which suggests that these planets have a primordial hydrosphere. Our composition constraints also indicate that no planets are consistent with a core-free interior structure.

Implications of Atmospheric Nondetections for Trappist-1 Inner Planets on Atmospheric Retention Prospects for Outer Planets

JWST secondary eclipse observations of Trappist-1b seemingly disfavor atmospheres >∼1 bar since heat redistribution is expected to yield dayside emission temperature below the ∼500 K observed. Given the similar densities of Trappist-1 planets, and the theoretical potential for atmospheric erosion around late M dwarfs, this observation might be assumed to imply substantial atmospheres are also unlikely for the outer planets. However, the processes governing atmosphere erosion and replenishment are fundamentally different for inner and outer planets. Here, an atmosphere–interior evolution model is used to show that an airless Trappist-1b (and c) only weakly constrains stellar evolution, and that the odds of outer planets e and f retaining substantial atmospheres remain largely unchanged. This is true even if the initial volatile inventories of planets in the Trappist-1 system are highly correlated. The reason for this result is that b and c sit unambiguously interior to the runaway greenhouse limit, and so have potentially experienced ∼8 Gyr of X-ray and extreme ultraviolet–driven hydrodynamic escape; complete atmospheric erosion in this environment only weakly constrains stellar evolution and escape parameterizations. In contrast, e and f reside within the habitable zone, and likely experienced a comparatively short steam atmosphere during Trappist-1's pre-main sequence, and consequently complete atmospheric erosion remains unlikely across a broad swath of parameter space (e and f retain atmospheres in ∼98% of model runs). Naturally, it is still possible that all Trappist-1 planets formed volatile-poor and are all airless today. But the airlessness of b (and c) does not require this, and as such, JWST transit spectroscopy of e and f remains the best near-term opportunity to characterize the atmospheres of habitable zone terrestrial planets.

Thermal emission from the Earth-sized exoplanet TRAPPIST-1 b using JWST

The TRAPPIST-1 system is remarkable for its seven planets that are similar in size, mass, density and stellar heating to the rocky planets Venus, Earth and Mars in the Solar System1. All the TRAPPIST-1 planets have been observed with transmission spectroscopy using the Hubble or Spitzer space telescopes, but no atmospheric features have been detected or strongly constrained2-5. TRAPPIST-1 b is the closest planet to the M-dwarf star of the system, and it receives four times as much radiation as Earth receives from the Sun. This relatively large amount of stellar heating suggests that its thermal emission may be measurable. Here we present photometric secondary eclipse observations of the Earth-sized exoplanet TRAPPIST-1 b using the F1500W filter of the mid-infrared instrument on the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST). We detect the secondary eclipses in five separate observations with 8.7σ confidence when all data are combined. These measurements are most consistent with re-radiation of the incident flux of the TRAPPIST-1 star from only the dayside hemisphere of the planet. The most straightforward interpretation is that there is little or no planetary atmosphere redistributing radiation from the host star and also no detectable atmospheric absorption of carbon dioxide (CO2) or other species.

Measuring the Obliquities of the TRAPPIST-1 Planets with MAROON-X

A star’s obliquity with respect to its planetary system can provide us with insight into the system’s formation and evolution, as well as hinting at the presence of additional objects in the system. However, M dwarfs, which are the most promising targets for atmospheric follow-up, are underrepresented in terms of obliquity characterization surveys due to the challenges associated with making precise measurements. In this paper, we use the extreme-precision radial velocity (RV) spectrograph MAROON-X to measure the obliquity of the late M dwarf TRAPPIST-1. With the Rossiter–McLaughlin effect, we measure a system obliquity of and a stellar rotational velocity of 2.1 ± 0.3 km s−1. We were unable to detect stellar surface differential rotation, and we found that a model in which all planets share the same obliquity was favored by our data. We were also unable to make a detection of the signatures of the planets using Doppler tomography, which is likely a result of the both the slow rotation of the star and the low signal-to-noise ratio of the data. Overall, TRAPPIST-1 appears to have a low obliquity, which could imply that the system has a low primordial obliquity. It also appears to be a slow rotator, which is consistent with past characterizations of the system and estimates of the star’s rotation period. The MAROON-X data allow for a precise measurement of the stellar obliquity through the Rossiter–McLaughlin effect, highlighting the capabilities of MAROON-X and its ability to make high-precision RV measurements around late, dim stars.

Interior Heating of Rocky Exoplanets from Stellar Flares with Application to TRAPPIST-1

Many stars of different spectral types with planets in the habitable zone are known to emit flares. Until now, studies that address the long-term impact of stellar flares and associated coronal mass ejections (CMEs) assumed that the planet’s interior remains unaffected by interplanetary CMEs, only considering the effect of plasma/UV interactions on the atmosphere of planets. Here, we show that the magnetic flux carried by flare-associated CMEs results in planetary interior heating by ohmic dissipation and leads to a variety of interior–exterior interactions. We construct a physical model to study this effect and apply it to the TRAPPIST-1 star whose flaring activity has been constrained by Kepler observations. Our model is posed in a stochastic manner to account for uncertainty and variability in input parameters. Particularly for the innermost planets, our results suggest that the heat dissipated in the silicate mantle is both of sufficient magnitude and longevity to drive geological processes and hence facilitate volcanism and outgassing of the TRAPPIST-1 planets. Furthermore, our model predicts that Joule heating can further be enhanced for planets with an intrinsic magnetic field compared to those without. The associated volcanism and outgassing may continuously replenish the atmosphere and thereby mitigate the erosion of the atmosphere caused by the direct impact of flares and CMEs. To maintain consistency of atmospheric and geophysical models, the impact of stellar flares and CMEs on atmospheres of close-in exoplanetary systems needs to be studied in conjunction with the effect on planetary interiors.

Two temperate super-Earths transiting a nearby late-type M dwarf

Context. In the age of JWST, temperate terrestrial exoplanets transiting nearby late-type M dwarfs provide unique opportunities for characterising their atmospheres, as well as searching for biosignature gases. In this context, the benchmark TRAPPIST-1 planetary system has garnered the interest of a broad scientific community. Aims. We report here the discovery and validation of two temperate super-Earths transiting LP 890-9 (TOI-4306, SPECULOOS-2), a relatively low-activity nearby (32 pc) M6V star. The inner planet, LP 890-9 b, was first detected by TESS (and identified as TOI-4306.01) based on four sectors of data. Intensive photometric monitoring of the system with the SPECULOOS Southern Observatory then led to the discovery of a second outer transiting planet, LP 890-9 c (also identified as SPECULOOS-2 c), previously undetected by TESS. The orbital period of this second planet was later confirmed by MuSCAT3 follow-up observations. Methods. We first inferred the properties of the host star by analyzing its Lick/Kast optical and IRTF/SpeX near-infrared spectra, as well as its broadband spectral energy distribution, and Gaia parallax. We then derived the properties of the two planets by modelling multi-colour transit photometry from TESS, SPECULOOS-South, MuSCAT3, ExTrA, TRAPPIST-South, and SAINT-EX. Archival imaging, Gemini-South/Zorro high-resolution imaging, and Subaru/IRD radial velocities also support our planetary interpretation. Results. With a mass of 0.118 ± 0.002 M⊙, a radius of 0.1556 ± 0.0086 R⊙, and an effective temperature of 2850 ± 75 K, LP 890-9 is the second-coolest star found to host planets, after TRAPPIST-1. The inner planet has an orbital period of 2.73 d, a radius of 1.320 −0.027+0.053 R⊕, and receives an incident stellar flux of 4.09 ± 0.12 S⊕. The outer planet has a similar size of 1.367 −0.039+0.055R⊕ and an orbital period of 8.46 d. With an incident stellar flux of 0.906 ± 0.026 S⊕, it is located within the conservative habitable zone, very close to its inner limit (runaway greenhouse). Although the masses of the two planets remain to be measured, we estimated their potential for atmospheric characterisation via transmission spectroscopy using a mass-radius relationship and found that, after the TRAPPIST-1 planets, LP 890-9 c is the second-most favourable habitable-zone terrestrial planet known so far (assuming for this comparison a similar atmosphere for all planets). Conclusions. The discovery of this remarkable system offers another rare opportunity to study temperate terrestrial planets around our smallest and coolest neighbours.