Transverse Tensile Tests Research Articles

Joint-design effect on the metallurgical and mechanical behavior of duplex stainless steel welds

In the present investigation, the influence of joint design on the microstructure and the mechanical properties of SAF 2205 duplex stainless steel welds are reported. Plates with two different joint designs were welded using the gas tungsten arc welding process. To investigate the sole effect of joint design, the joints were designed in such a way that both joints have similar groove volumes. The weldments were investigated for microstructural characterization, ferrite content, and microhardness study; later, they were subjected to Charpy V-notch impact test, transverse tensile test, and fatigue testing in order to investigate the mechanical performance. Both the weld joints were able to achieve 100% joint efficiency in view of the transverse tensile test. Different weld joint configurations demonstrated the influence of the differential heat dissipation characteristics of the joints, evident from different morphological features revealed through optical microscopy of the weldment. The welding affected the ferrite(α)-austenite(γ) ratio of the weld metals and differed the welds in terms of ferrite content in the root and weld pass. The weld zone of the U-joint showed a 65.8% ferrite fraction and thus showed 18% more hardness as compared to the V-joint, while the V-joint had the highest yield stress of 617 MPa. The study revealed that the U-joint performed better in comparison to the V-joint in terms of microhardness, impact toughness, and fatigue behavior. The U-joint could resist around 15% more fatigue cycles than the V-joint under high cycle fatigue.

Development of fabrication technologies for the first wall of the HCCR blanket

The helium-cooled ceramic reflector (HCCR) concept is a primary candidate among demonstration fusion power reactor (DEMO) blanket options in Korea. The HCCR blanket is composed of a first wall (FW), a breeding zone, side cover plates and a back manifold. This study focuses on fabrication technologies for the FW using laser-beam welding (LBW) and hot isostatic pressure (HIP) bonding. Permanent backing strips in the pressure boundaries of the HCCR blanket are not allowed according to regulations related to pressure vessels and nuclear pressure vessels because high-pressure helium gas at 8 MPa is used as the coolant. LBW conditions and procedures for the fabrication of a FW without backing strips were investigated using small mock-ups with an advanced reduced-activation alloy called ARAA, which was developed in Korea. The laser beam power, thickness of the cover plate, and width of the backing strips were considered as parameters. The LBW conditions and procedures were optimized to remove the backing strip and achieve uniform and continuous back beads. After LBW, the fabrication of the FW with small mock-ups was completed by joining the back plate with HIP bonding. The small mock-ups were subject to very high temperatures exceeding 1000°C during the LBW and HIP bonding processes, which led to changes in the microstructures and hardness levels. The microstructures and hardness levels were recovered through post-heat treatments performed after HIP bonding. The microstructures of the HIP bonding interface after the heat treatments were observed. A partial HIP bonding line was confirmed and transverse tensile tests were carried out to investigate the impact of the partial HIP bonding line on the mechanical properties of the HIP bonding interface. The tensile strength of the HIP bonding interface was approx. 2% lower than that of the base metal, indicating that the partial HIP bonding line caused a slight decrease in the tensile strength, but the impact on the HCCR blanket design would be negligible.

Anisotropic behaviors of moisture absorption and hygroscopic swelling of unidirectional flax fiber reinforced composites

This work aims to study the anisotropic moisture absorption characteristics of unidirectional flax fiber reinforced composites (FFRCs) and evaluate the variations of the internal stress caused by the hygroscopic deformation, which might lead to the deterioration of the mechanical properties of the composites. FFRCs were prepared using vacuum-assisted resin infusion molding (VARIM) technology. Moisture absorption tests were designed by sealing the designated surfaces with a polyurethane waterproof coating to keep the moisture absorption of FFRCs only in the desired directions. The deformation caused by moisture absorption in the width direction was also monitored. It confirms that the moisture absorption of FFRCs conformed to the 3D Fick's law, and the influence of moisture absorption in the width direction cannot be ignored, especially for the unidirectional transverse tensile test specimen (UTFRC). The hygroscopic deformation of the unidirectional FFRCs showed that the material expands perpendicular to the fiber direction but shrinks along the fiber direction. The modified 3D Fick’s law based on heat conduction equation was performed to reveal the mechanism of the above moisture absorption and hygroscopic deformation. According to the finite element inversion, it was found that the axial diffusion coefficient along flax fiber bundles was much larger than the transverse diffusion coefficient perpendicular to the fiber bundle direction due to the existence of the unique lumen structure inside flax fibers. In addition, the high internal stress caused by the mismatched swelling properties between the fiber and the matrix was the main reason for the damage of the FFRCs, especially at the interface, which may seriously affect the service life of the composites. The outcome of this study can be used to accurately analyze the hydro-elastic behaviors of plant fiber reinforced composites, which is a prerequisite for predicting the mechanical properties affected by moisture absorption.

Interfacial and Interlaminar Shear Strength of Unidirectional Viscose Fibre-Reinforced Epoxy Composites—an Overview of the Comparability of Results Obtained by Different Test Methods

In this study, the apparent interfacial and interlaminar shear strength (IFSS and ILSS) of single fibres and unidirectional (UD) viscose fibre-reinforced epoxy composites were characterised using different test methods. Microbond and pull-out tests were used to analyse the IFSS of single fibres embedded in epoxy and the transverse tensile test was applied to measure the IFSS of UD fibre-reinforced composites. The short beam shear test, single edge notched bending test (SENB), double-notched tensile test and double-notched compression test were applied to characterise the ILSS. The composites were produced from continuous tows with fibre mass fractions of 20%, 30% and 40% and fibres of different fineness (1.7, 3.3 and 28.0 dtex). The results showed that the different test procedures led to different trends of ILSS depending on the fibre mass fraction and fibre fineness used. The transverse tensile test revealed that the IFSS decreased with increasing fibre mass fraction and fibre diameter. A different trend was found with the short beam shear test and the SENB test for the ILSS. Here, higher values were detected with increasing fibre mass content, and the influence of the fineness was less noticeable. The double-notched shear tests (tensile and compression) showed a different trend: the ILSS increased with increasing fibre mass fraction from 20% to 30%. With a further increase to 40%, the ILSS tend to decrease slightly. An influence of the fibre fineness on the ILSS could not be statistically proven. The different trends of the test methods are attributed to the constitution of the composite and the different load application caused by the test procedures.

A study on microstructural and mechanical properties of gas tungsten arc welded thick cryogenic 9% Ni alloy steel butt joint

Low alloy steel plates containing 9% Ni are generally preferred in the production of LNG storage tanks, due to their outstanding combination of properties such as excellent toughness, high ductility and crack resistance at very low temperatures. Welding is an indispensable manufacturing method in the production of LNG storage tanks. Thus, there is a need for reliable welding procedures which do not diminish low temperature properties of this steel grade. This study introduces the result of microstructural evolution in the weld region and the mechanical properties of the gas tungsten arc welded 10 mm thick 9 Ni steel joint produced by using a Ni-based filler wire, which is widely used in LNG storage tanks. The microstructures evolved in the weld region were examined by extensive optical microscopy and SEM investigations. Mechanical properties and joint performance values of the welded joints were determined by detailed microhardness measurements and transverse tensile tests. Moreover, fracture toughness of the joint fabricated was also determined at − 196 °C by Charpy V-notch test.

Investigation of metallurgical characterization and mechanical properties of double-sided friction stir welding of aluminum 6061 T6 alloy

In the present study, the effect of tool tilt angle was investigated to appraise the metallurgical and mechanical behavior of double-sided friction stir welded joints of AA-6061 T6 alloy of 6 mm thick plates, using scrolled shoulder and frustum tool pin geometry. Two friction stir welded joints, with 0° (Joint J1) and 2° (Joint J2) tool tilt angles were fabricated using a fixed travel speed of 50 mm/min and tool rotational speed of 800 rpm. The metallurgical studies carried out by the electron backscattered diffraction showed that the incorporation of tool tilt angle resulted in the refinement of grains within the stir zone to a larger extent. The transverse tensile test results revealed that the joint efficiency of the J2 welded joint improved by 12% as compared to the J1 joint. The layered tensile specimens extracted from the different regions (first pass, second pass, and overlap region) of the stir zone of both the welded joints showed an appreciable variation in mechanical and metallurgical properties. The V-notch Charpy impact toughness test for J2 joint showed 16% higher toughness, with the presence of a 55% shear area fraction in the fractured impact specimens, as compared to the 30% for the J1 joint.

Improved microstructure and mechanical properties of friction stir-welded AZ61 Mg alloy joint

Friction stir welding (FSW) is a common and effective technology used to join metals or alloys of low melting point. However, the FSW Mg alloy joint usually exhibits an unsatisfactory combination of strength and ductility due to an intense basal texture formed in the welded joint. In this study, large-load and low-speed FSW was conducted on an AZ61 Mg alloy to improve the thermal cycling during the welding process. The welded joint exhibited an ultrafine grain structure with high dislocation density and large {10-12} twins. This grain refinement was attributed to continuous dynamic recrystallization and twinning-induced geometric dynamic recrystallization. The appearance of {10-12} twins played a critical role on the basal texture randomization of the welded joint. During transverse tensile testing, the welded joint fractured at the base metal, indicating that a welding efficiency of 100% was successfully achieved. Compared with the conventional FSW, the enhanced strength of the stir zone of large-load and low-speed FSW is attributed to grain boundary strengthening, dislocation strengthening, and precipitation strengthening. The enhanced elongation is due to the increased Schmid factor and interaction between dislocations and {10-12} twins. This study provides a facile strategy for enhance the welding efficiency of the FSW Mg alloy joint and gives new insights for improved strength-ductility synergy of the Mg alloy.

Influence of tool rotational speed on the microstructural characterization and mechanical properties of friction stir welded Al-Si10Mg parts produced by DMLS additive manufacturing process

Present study investigate the joining of precipitation hardened AlSi10Mg alloy, developed using direct metal laser sintering technique of additive manufacturing using friction stir welding. Consequently, three, single-pass, square butt-welded joints were fabricated from 3 mm thick plates of this alloy, using friction stir welding process at different tool rotational speeds (low, medium and high). Each welded joint was fabricated at the same transverse speed of 50 mm/min, H13 tool steel possessing scrolled shoulder and 3° tilt angle. Microstructural observations show a significant grain refinement within the stir zone, which reduced with the increase in tool rotational speed. This variation was accredited to the significant dynamic recrystallization in the weldment, and change in the morphology and size of the Si-particles. The transverse tensile test results show a considerable drop in the joint efficiency of the welds from ≈48% to ≈42% with the increase in tool rotational speed from low to high.

Evaluation of Biomechanical Properties and Morphometric Structures of the Trachea in Pigs and Rabbits.

Animals differ in the biochemical composition, attachments, and mechanical properties of tracheal cartilage. This study examined the biomechanical properties and morphological structure of the trachea of pigs, and rabbits as preclinical models. The trachea in pigs and rabbits can be divided into four regions, cranial cervical, middle cervical, thoracic inlet, and intra-thoracic parts. The total number of tracheal rings in pigs and rabbits was 32-35 and 34-38 rings, respectively. The pig bronchus first branches from the trachea, reaching the cranial lobe of the lungs before branching to the main bronchus, while the rabbit bronchus branched after the main bronchus. A comparison of the posterior region of the crosssectional trachea shows that the rabbit has a C-shape with cartilage connected to the tracheal muscle, and the pig has the tracheal muscle covered with cartilage. The trachea of pigs and rabbits decreased in tracheal thickness and size from the thoracic inlet toward the lungs. The stress-strain in the longitudinal and transverse tensile test was higher in rabbits than in pigs. The tensile stress of the four regions was significantly different in the transverse tensile test (p<0.001). In the bending test, more force was required to bend pig than rabbit tracheas. Microscopic and scanning electron microscopy showed no structural differences in tracheal cartilage between the two species. These results suggest that there is great variation in morphology and physical properties of the trachea in pigs and rabbits. We found porcine tracheas have similar biomechanical properties to those of humans.

Decisive impact of Filler-free joining processes on the Microstructural evolution, tensile and impact properties of 9Cr-1Mo-V-Nb to 316 L(N) dissimilar joints

Filler-free (FF) welding processes namely, Activated Tungsten Inert Gas welding (ATIG), Laser Beam Welding (LBW), and Friction Stir Welding (FSW) were utilized for joining the nuclear grade 9Cr-1Mo-V-Nb ferritic-martensitic steel and 316 L(N) austenitic stainless steel. A comparative investigation was made by assessing the weld geometries, metallurgical features, material mixing proportions, carbon diffusion behaviour, and mechanical properties of the post-weld heat-treated (PWHT) dissimilar weld joints. Geometries of the weld zones were observed with the transverse and longitudinal macrographs. Metallurgical features were examined by optical microscopy (OM) and Scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Three-phase microstructures were identified in the dissimilar weld zones (DWZ). The elemental distributions were identified by Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDAX). The mixing proportions of the dissimilar alloys and the formation of δ-ferrite in the dissimilar heat-affected zones (HAZ) and DWZ were analytically quantified. Moreover, the diffusion activity of carbides/interstitial carbon atoms was examined by Secondary ion mass spectroscopy (SIMS). In the FSW joints, the intermingled microstructures are recorded with high and stabilized hardness values as compared to the DWZ of the ATIG and LBW joints. In the transverse tensile test, all FF joints were failed at the 316 L(N) base metal (BM) region. Tensile and impact testing of all weld metal indicated that, the weld metal region of the LBW joint exhibited higher strength and lower toughness as compared to the ATIG and FSW joints. The presence of untransformed, recrystallized fine equiaxed austenite along and refined martensitic structure arranged in an alternate layers within the weld metal region of FSW joint caused the higher toughness property than the ATIG and LBW joints.

Relationship between welding conditions, abnormal grain growth and mechanical performance in friction-stir welded 6061-T6 aluminum alloy

In this work, a relationship between welding conditions, annealing behavior, and mechanical performance of friction-stir welded (FSWed) 6061-T6 aluminum alloy was examined. In the entire studied FSW range, the welded material was found to be unstable against abnormal grain growth during post-weld solutionizing treatment. However, a lowering of the FSW heat input tended to inhibit this undesirable phenomenon. In addition to the stir zone, the abnormal microstructural coarsening was also observed in the heat-affected zone, whereas the thermo-mechanically affected zone experienced static recrystallization. In all cases, the abnormal grain growth was found to result in ~25-35°<110> rotation of the original crystallographic texture. Hence, this process was suggested to be governed by the orientation-growth mechanism. Due to the relatively high strain-hardening ability intrinsic to the coarse-grained materials, the abnormal grains suppressed tensile strain in the stir zone during transverse tensile tests thus degrading weld ductility.

Experimental study on performance characterization of bolted joint under transverse loading

Threaded fasteners are widely used in a variety of engineering applications. The quality of threaded connections directly affects the service performance. By aiming to acquiring a deeper understanding of the performance characteristics, the mechanical behavior of bolted joint was examined using transverse tensile test. The force–displacement curves of bolted joints exhibit linear characteristics during the first stage, while subsequently the curves exhibit various shapes due to assembly clearance. The tangential stiffness of the bolted joint decreases rapidly when the connected plate slips. And the transverse load threshold between various stages is positively correlated with the clamping force of threaded fastener. The experimental data was fitted to obtain a piecewise function that characterizes the entire slip curve of bolted joints under transverse loading. Main characterization parameters in various stages were analyzed and discussed based on the experimental results, which can aid in the design and using of bolted joints.

On the local variation of mechanical properties in friction-stir welded 6061 aluminum alloy

In this work, digital image correlation technique was applied to investigate local variations of mechanical properties in friction-stir welded 6061 aluminium alloy. A pronounced strain concentration in the bottom section of stir zone was revealed during transverse tensile tests. This effect was suggested to be associated with residual stress generated in this microstructural region during friction-stir welding.

Prediction of Mechanical Properties of Structural Bamboo and Its Relationship with Growth Parameters

Bamboo is a renewable natural building material with good mechanical properties. However, due to the heterogeneity and anisotropy of bamboo stalk, a large amount of material performance testing costs are required in engineering applications. In this work, longitudinal compression, bending, longitudinal shear, longitudinal tensile, transverse compression and transverse tensile tests of bamboo materials are conducted, considering the influence of the bamboo nodes. The mechanical properties of the whole bamboo stalk with the wall thickness and outer circumference are explored. Through univariate and multiple regression analysis, the relationship between mechanical properties and wall thickness and perimeter is fitted, and the conversion parameters between different mechanical properties are derived. The research results show that the transverse compressive strength of nodal specimen, and transverse tensile strength of nodal and inter-node specimens increase with the increase of wall thickness and outer circumference, but other mechanical properties decrease with the increase of wall thickness and outer circumference. The prediction formula and conversion parameters of bamboo mechanical properties proposed in this research have high applicability and accuracy. Moreover, this research can provide references for the evaluation of bamboo performance and saving test costs.

Dissimilar unbeveled butt joints of AA6061 to S235 structural steel by means of standard single beam fiber laser welding-brazing

Abstract The design of parts involving the combination of different materials has gained much attention in recent years as a strategy to achieve weight reduction. Joining of dissimilar materials has become a necessity to produce such parts. However, obtaining dissimilar welds showing high mechanical performance usually takes complex, expensive and time-consuming approaches. In this study, an affordable welding approach is proposed to join 6061 aluminum alloy to S235 structural steel, based on a single laser beam, on unbeveled square butt joints, and on the combination of welding wire and preplaced Al-Si powder. The relation between welding parameters and imperfections formation is studied by using a combined parameters analysis, and thorough microstructural and mechanical characterization are performed. The application of AlSi5 wire in combination with AlSi12 powder led to crack-free welds showing homogeneous 3 ± 1 μm-thick intermetallic compound (IMC) layer, composed of Fe2Al5, Fe4Al13 and Fe4Al17.5Si1.5 intermetallics. Transverse tensile tests showed that ultimate tensile strength of joints was as high as 169 MPa, which is above the minimum value established by international standards on AA6061 welds and comparable to the values obtained by other authors’ dissimilar welds by using more complex and expensive welding approaches. The IMC layer showed 11.2 ± 0.7 GPa hardness and 257 ± 24 GPa modulus of elasticity. Both properties are much higher than the base materials ones, and are in agreement with the mechanical behavior seen under tensile testing.

Measurement of in-plane and out-of-plane elastic properties of woven fabric composites using digital image correlation

The digital image correlation (DIC) technique is employed to measure the strain fields and the five independent elastic material constants of a glass/vinyl ester plain weave laminated composite. Transverse (through-thickness) tensile and Iosipescu shear properties were measured using thick (∼19 mm) laminates, and the strain fields were compared against those predicted by a homogenized linear elastic finite element analysis. DIC reveals that the strain fields of the laminates may present heterogeneous zones, which are attributed to the heterogeneous nature of the woven fabric architecture. Homogenization of the DIC strain fields to produce two-dimensional stress-strain plots yields average strains and elastic properties of the woven composite which can be similar to those measured by conventional (localized) strain gages. Important differences were found for the transverse tensile and Iosipescu shear tests, where differences of 26.4%, 28.6% and 11.9% were obtained for the measured transverse elastic modulus ( Ez), in-plane shear modulus ( Gxy) and transverse shear modulus ( Gxz), respectively.

Study on interfacial debonding stress and damage mechanisms of C/SiC composites using acoustic emission

Among ceramic matrix composites (CMCs), carbon fiber-reinforced silicon carbide matrix (C/SiC) composites are widely used in numerous high-temperature structural applications because of their superior properties. The fiber–matrix (FM) interface is a decisive constituent to ensure material integrity and efficient crack deflection. Therefore, there is a critical need to study the mechanical properties of the FM interface in applications of C/SiC composites. In this study, tensile tests were conducted to evaluate the interfacial debonding stress on unidirectional C/SiC composites with fibers oriented perpendicularly to the loading direction in order to perfectly open the interfaces. The characteristics of the material damage behaviors in the tensile tests were successfully detected and distinguished using the acoustic emission (AE) technique. The relationships between the damage behaviors and features of AE signals were investigated. The results showed that there were obviously three damage stages, including the initiation and growth of cracks, FM interfacial debonding, and large-scale development and bridging of cracks, which finally resulted in material failure in the transverse tensile tests of unidirectional C/SiC composites. The frequency components distributed around 92.5 kHz were dominated by matrix damage and failure, and the high-frequency components distributed around 175.5 kHz were dominated by FM interfacial debonding. Based on the stress and strain versus time curves, the average interfacial debonding stress of the unidirectional C/SiC composites was approximately 1.91 MPa. Furthermore, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDXS) were used to observe the morphologies and analyze the chemical compositions of the fractured surfaces. The results confirmed that the fiber was completely debonded from a matrix on the fractured surface. The damage behaviors of the C/SiC composites were mainly the syntheses of matrix cracking, fiber breakage, and FM interfacial debonding.

Novel progressive failure model for quasi-orthotropic pultruded FRP structures: Application to compact tension and web-crippling case studies (Part II)

Part I [1] of this two-part paper presented the formulation of a novel progressive failure model for pultruded fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) composites, allowing for the 3D simulation of quasi-orthotropic FRP plates as a homogenized material, as well as the model calibration based on a set of standardized material characterization tests. Part II presents the application of that (calibrated) model to the simulation of two case studies: (i) transverse compact tensile (CT) tests; and (ii) web-crippling tests for two load configurations, external two-flanges (ETF) and internal two-flanges (ITF). The CT test, which is often used to determine the (tensile) fracture energy of FRP materials, is especially interesting as it allows assessing the quality of the simulations for a combination of in-plane transverse tensile and shear stresses in a geometry with a sharp singularity. The web-crippling test, on the other hand, is often used to determine the strength of FRP shapes under concentrated transverse loads, a real structural problem involving combined in-plane compressive and shear stresses. In this paper these two relatively complex case studies are used to assess the quality of the simulation in the presence of combined in-plane stresses. The numerical results showed an excellent agreement with their CT test counterparts; the simulation of these experiments were also used to demonstrate the need for using a mesh regularization scheme when modelling problems with singularities. The models were also well able to simulate both web-crippling load configurations, only slightly underestimating the maximum load – this was likely due to the slight underestimation of shear strength for combined in-plane shear and moderate transverse compressive stresses, as discussed in Part I [1], and/or non-quasi-orthotropic behaviour of the web-flange junction. Overall, the numerical results showed a good agreement with the experimental data, even for relatively coarse meshes, attesting the feasibility and precision of the proposed damage progression model.

Influence of travel speed on the microstructural evaluation and mechanical characteristics of bobbin tool friction stir-welded thick AA5456-H112 plates

5456-H112 aluminum alloy plates with a thickness of 20 mm were joined using floating-bobbin tool friction stir welding at different travel speeds from 28 to 160 mm/min and a fixed rotational speed of 90 rpm. The results of microstructural analysis indicated that the grain size is decreased at a constant travel speed (at each of the speeds of 28, 40, 56, 80, 112, and 160 mm/min), from the retreating side to the advancing side of the joints whereas the density and the size of the intermetallic compounds are increased. Increasing the travel speed also reduces heat input and recrystallized grain size of the stirred region leading to increased hardness of the joints. The tensile test results showed that the ultimate tensile strength, yield strength, and elongation of the welded samples initially increase by increasing the travel speed and then start to decrease due to the formation of defects in the stir zone. The fracture of all transverse tensile test specimens occurs on the advancing side of the joints. The fracture location of the best specimen is located at the adjacent of the base metal with the heat-affected zone. The maximum mechanical properties are achieved at a travel speed of 40 mm/min, and the welding efficiency in that condition is approximately 97%.

Uniaxial and biaxial deformation characteristics of AA7075-O friction stir welded joints

The formability of friction stir welded (FSW) AA7075-O aluminum alloy sheet specimens was tested under a range of warm uniaxial and biaxial loading conditions. To study the effect of FSW process conditions on formability, four groups of specimens were prepared using a range of FSW parameters. Two rotational speeds (500 and 1000 rpm), four travel speeds (4.2, 5.1, 8.5, 12.7 mm/s), and four axial force levels (6895, 7006, 7117, 7346 N) were included in the test matrix. Each specimen had a butt joint centrally located and oriented parallel to the sheet rolling direction. Specimens from each of the four groups were then tested under different combinations of uniaxial (e.g., transverse tensile test) and biaxial loading conditions (bulge test), including at two different strain rates (0.0013 and 0.013 1/s) and three different temperature levels (25, 200, and 300 °C). From the flow curves obtained from each test combination, the relative effect that FSW parameters (rotational speed, travel speed, and axial force) and forming parameters (temperature and strain rate) had on formability was investigated in detail. Mechanical and structural variations of the weld zone were compared with those of the base material. Tool rotational speed was observed to have a major effect on the yield and tensile strength of FSW blanks, with strengths varying by as much as 20% over the range process and forming parameters tested. Stress-strain curves obtained by using hydraulic bulge tests yielded a 5–10% increase in strain values compared with uniaxial tensile test results. In the bulge tests, the fracture zone was only observed to occur at the apex of the dome along the joint line for specimens tested at 300 °C and a strain rate of 0.0013 1/s. Specimens tested under other FSW parameters and process combinations did not fail in this location. In tensile tests, the specimens were only fractured on the welding line under forming conditions of 300 °C and at either the low or the high strain rate. Otherwise, the specimens failed away from the joint line. The maximum dome height, as a measure of formability, was obtained under forming conditions of 200 °C temperature and at a 0.0013 1/s strain rate. This result correlated well with stress-strain curves obtained from uniaxial tension testing.