Transverse Reinforcement Bars Research Articles

Refinement in the understanding of confinement of concrete

The compressive axial load-deformation curve of a reinforced concrete (RC) member reflects the contributions of the concrete in compression and tension, the longitudinal and transverse reinforcement bars in compression and bending, and the aggregate interlocking in concrete in its dilated state. Together these factors enhance the axial response of RC compared to its plain counterpart. Even though expressions proposed in the past capture the composite response of this confining effect in an empirical sense, none of them separate the said individual contributions. This study provides a mechanics-based method to obtain the axial-load deformation response of a RC member, and thereby the stress-strain curve of confined concrete, by assembling the combined effect from each contributing parameter. The governing contributions are fundamental and physically intuitive; they include contributions of unconfined concrete, transverse reinforcement, longitudinal reinforcement (including buckling), and aggregate interlocking. The stress-strain curves from the proposed method compare well with those obtained from many tests on confined concrete available in the literature, and seem to better estimate the response than two popularly used confinement expressions. Similar comparisons are made with the axial load-deformation curves. A parametric study is undertaken to capture the effects of section geometry, high-strength materials, and area ratio on the confinement of concrete. Finally, a refined understanding is presented of the estimation of strength of confined of concrete.

An experimental study on seismic performance levels of highly corroded reinforced concrete columns

AbstractIn the literature, only one empirical model is available as a nondestructive method for the prediction of seismic performance levels of corroded reinforced concrete (RC) columns as a function of the initial corrosion crack width at lower corrosion levels. Because of the ruptured transverse reinforcement bars at higher corrosion levels, the structural behavior may turn brittle in terms of shear failure. Therefore, in this study, higher corrosion levels for a different concrete strength level from that empirical model were studied. To do this, four RC columns were subjected to accelerated corrosion, and the widths of initial corrosion cracks were measured. The corroded RC columns were then tested under combined constant axial load and cyclic lateral displacement excursions. After the cyclic loading test, the actual corrosion levels at each reinforcement bar were obtained by extracting the reinforcement bars from the concrete. Test results showed that the prediction of seismic performance levels of corroded RC columns based on initial corrosion crack widths were limited owing to the nonlinear increase in the crack width with the increase in the corrosion levels. New empirical models were developed to predict the remaining energy capacities and seismic performance levels of the corroded RC columns.

Experimental study on high strength concrete encased steel composite short columns

This paper investigates on the axial compressive behavior of high strength Concrete Encased Steel (CES) composite short columns. Six column specimens made of high strength concrete were tested under monotonic pure compression. The structural performance was investigated including failure pattern, load-carrying capacity, load-deformation response, and post peak ductility. The major parameters affecting the ultimate strength of such composite columns are studied including concrete strength, spacing of transverse reinforcement bars, and the inclusion of steel fibers in the high strength concrete. Based on the experimental work, it is found that the failure mode of CES columns with high concrete strength C120 is characterized by concrete cover spalling, which triggers a sudden drop of compression capacity once the peak resistance is reached. With the decrease of transverse reinforcement spacing, the ultimate load capacity of high strength CES columns can be enhanced due to better concrete confinement but the failure is still brittle with abrupt unloading from the peak load. The test results also indicated that the provision of 0.5% volume of steel fiber is able to prevent the concrete cover spalling, and hence the load-carrying capacity can be enhanced. Finally, the test results together with additional test data collected from the literature are used for comparison with codes’ prediction using the EN 1994-1-1 and JGJ 138-2016. The code methods give excellent prediction of CES columns with normal strength steel and concrete grade up to C90, but they over-estimate the maximum resistance of CES columns with concrete strength higher than 90 MPa. To extend the current design methods for CES members with higher strength concrete, two analytical methods were proposed which shows good correlation with test results, thus enabling the design of CES members with higher strength of concrete.

Confinement Effect of Geo-grid and Conventional Shear Reinforcement Bars Subjected to Corrosion

An experimental study was performed to examine the effects of polyester geo-grid as a shear reinforcement bar for corroded and uncorroded reinforced concrete beams. The main aim of this study was to investigate the effect of geo-grids on flexural strength, moment-curvature, bond–slip and crack patterns for uncorroded and corroded reinforced concrete beams. For each parameter, a geo-grid confinement technique was compared with conventional reinforced concrete beams as a function of corrosion level. The experimental program consisted of testing ten reinforced concrete beams for two different configurations of shear reinforcement bars at six different corrosion levels (0% and approximately 2, 3, 5, 6, and 9%). Test specimens were subjected to an accelerated corrosion method to corrode the reinforcement bars using a full-scale corrosion pool. Actual corrosion levels were obtained from fully extracted reinforcement bars by breaking the concrete. At the same overall corrosion levels which were differed at longitudinal and transverse reinforcement bars at the same applied corrosion current time for different RC beams. Obtained actual corrosion levels with the aid of fully extracted reinforcement bars from concrete provided to examine the effect of corrosion levels by considering the type of reinforcement bars. The results indicated that the performance of the polyester geo-grid was very poor compared to conventional steel stirrups, even at this stage of corrosion. It was found that the utility of a geo-grid as shear reinforcement bars in reinforced concrete beams is not proper.

Hysteretic Behavior of Conventionally Reinforced Concrete Coupling Beams in Reinforced Concrete Coupled Shear Wall

This paper presents the experimental results of four full-scale coupling beams in which only horizontal reinforcements are placed, without diagonal reinforcements, with the aim to develop reinforcement details for coupling beams used in connecting side walls in a wall-slab structural system. Each coupling beam specimen was designed according to the deep-beam design procedure that does not use diagonal reinforcements and that is found in current standards. Two cases for basic deep-beam design specimens were investigated wherein (1) U-type reinforcement was added to prevent sliding shear failure of the joints and (2) horizontal intermediate reinforcements were placed. The coupling beam specimens were fabricated with a shear span-to-depth ratio (aspect ratio) of 1.68 and were connected to walls only by horizontal reinforcements, i.e., without diagonal reinforcement. The experimental results indicate that the strength of the beams was about 1.5 times the designed strength of a strut-and-tie model, which suggests that the model is available for predicting the strength of coupling beams with conventional reinforcement layouts such as horizontal and transverse reinforcement bars. The deformation capacity of these conventionally reinforced concrete coupling beams ranged from 1.48 to 3.47% in accordance with the reinforcement layouts of the beams. Therefore, this study found that the performance of conventionally reinforced concrete coupling beams with an aspect ratio of 1.68 can be controlled through the implementation of reinforcement details that include U-type reinforcement and the anchorage of intermediate horizontal bars.

New structural joint by rebar looping applied to staged box girder bridge construction. Static tests

AbstractThe paper describes the design, development and experimental checking of a modified type of structural joint with limited length between concrete segments cast in‐situ. The design concept is based on the developed length of an anchorage hook stiffened by transverse reinforcement bars and is particularly suited for the case of in‐situ construction of staged box girder bridges, with the intention of possibly using lighter scaffolding.The studies concentrated on the strength, stiffness and serviceability of the proposed joint are presented. The research work comprises the bending behaviour of reinforced concrete slabs with loop joints with regard to the diameter of the loop bar, loop joint width and ultimate and fatigue load. The results are compared to the behaviour of reinforced concrete slabs without joints. A total of 16 slabs were tested with static and fatigue loading tests. The present paper evaluates the flexural behaviour in static loading tests. The results of fatigue tests have also shown excellent performance.In the static tests, crack widths and cracking pattern were observed at service load levels, and the ultimate behaviour was evaluated by means of tests to failure.From the test results, the service performance of the loop joints was confirmed to be similar to slabs without joints. The static loading tests confirm the good performance and effectiveness of this loop joint type under static loading. Details of the loop joint design criteria are also proposed.

Domino-type progressive collapse analysis of a multi-span simply-supported bridge: A case study

Hongqi Viaduct, a multi-span simply-supported bridge in Zhuzhou city, Hunan Province, China, collapsed progressively during the mechanical demolishing of the bridge on May 17, 2009. Totally nine spans collapsed in the accident and it is a typical domino-type progressive collapse. The accident resulted in the loss of 9 lives and 16 injuries. Investigations were conducted after the accident to determine the cause of the unexpected progressive collapse. This paper is aimed at presenting a summary of the bridge before and after the incident, the demolishing plans and field investigations after the accident. To better understand the cause and mechanism of the progressive collapse, a numerical simulation is carried out. A detail 3D finite element (FE) model is developed by using the explicit FE code LS-DYNA. The bridge components including the bridge slabs, wall-type piers, longitudinal and transverse reinforcement bars are included in the model. The non-linear material behaviour including the strain rate effects of the concrete and steel rebar are considered. The model is used to simulate the bridge collapse induced by demolishing, and the domino-type progressive collapse of the bridge is clearly captured. Based on the numerical results, the reason for the failure is discussed and better understood. Finally, the possible mitigation methods of such progressive collapses of multi-span viaducts are suggested.

Influence of water-to-binder ratio on top-bar effect and on bond variation across length in Self-Compacting Concrete specimens

The present study is investigating the impact of five different water-to-binder (w/b) ratios on bond capacity of Self-Compacting Concrete (SCC) specimens, with a focus on top-bar effect and on bond variation across horizontal specimens with a single casting point at one edge. One 600mm high vertical specimen and one 1780mm long horizontal specimen with transverse reinforcement bars that were distributed over height and across length, respectively, were cast and tested by pull-out for each of five SCC mixtures, and compared to three Normally Vibrated Concrete (NVC) mixtures with similar aggregate grading curves and compressive strength. The bond–slip curves were evaluated on the basis of analytical models for NVC, proposed by major international building codes and literature. SCC develops an improved bond capacity, a less intense top-bar effect and a lower scatter compared to NVC. The analytical bond–slip model curves appear to underestimate bond stiffness and overestimate the assumed maximum bond stress. Water increase leads to lower stresses and a more intense top-bar effect, which is though always less significant in SCC. The code provisions concerning the top-bar effect of rebars close to the poor bond conditions zone seem to overestimate the actual bond reduction. Bond capacity of SCC is not decreased across length up to the measured rebar distance (1.60m) from the casting point and the scatter of the resulting stresses is significantly lower compared to NVC, especially for higher w/b ratios.

New Structural Joint by Rebar Looping Applied to Segmental Bridge Construction: Fatigue Strength Tests

The objective of this research has been to design, develop, and evaluate experimentally a modified type of construction joint of limited length between concrete slab segments. The design concept is based on an anchorage hook of reduced development length stiffened by transverse reinforcement bars. The purpose of this paper is to investigate the mechanical behavior of the joint in terms of stiffness and strength for an application that requires high durability, which often leads to serviceability problems such as cracking and water leakage at transverse joints. This can regularly appear in bridges. Additionally, bridge decks are structures that are subjected to repeated loading such as traffic loads, making it necessary to evaluate the behavior of joints under fatigue load. Therefore, studies focusing on the strength, stiffness, and serviceability of the joints must be carried out. This paper investigates experimentally the fatigue behavior and strength of loop joints with regard to the loop bar diameter, loop joint width, and applied load ranges. These results were compared with the behavior of RC slabs without joints. A total of eight slabs were fabricated for fatigue loading tests, and the failures of the different specimens (with loop joints and without) were obtained. From the test results, the mechanical behavior of the slabs with loop joints was confirmed to be similar to that of the slabs without joints. The experimental loop joint design was found to perform correctly under fatigue loads.

Performance of axially restrained concrete encased steel composite columns at elevated temperatures

The structural performance of axially restrained concrete encased steel composite columns at elevated temperatures is investigated in this study. An efficient nonlinear 3-D finite element model was presented for the analysis of the pin-ended axially loaded columns. The restraint ratios varied from 20% to 100% of the axial stiffness of the composite columns at ambient temperature. The finite element model was verified against published test results on axially restrained concrete encased steel composite columns at elevated temperatures. The columns investigated had different cross-sectional dimensions, different coarse aggregates and different load ratios during fire. The nonlinear material properties of steel, concrete, longitudinal and transverse reinforcement bars as well as the effect of concrete confinement at ambient and elevated temperatures were considered in the finite element model. The interface between the steel section and concrete, the longitudinal and transverse reinforcement bars, and the reinforcement bars and concrete were also considered allowing the bond behaviour to be modelled and the different components to retain its profile during the deformation of the column. The initial overall geometric imperfection was carefully included in the model. The time–temperature relationships, deformed shapes at failure, time–axial displacement relationships, failure modes and fire resistances of the columns were evaluated by the finite element model and compared well against test results. Furthermore, the variables that influence the fire resistance and behaviour of the axially restrained composite columns comprising different axial restraint ratios, different load ratios during fire, different coarse aggregates and different slenderness ratios were investigated in a parametric study. It is shown that axially restrained composite columns behave differently in fire compared to the unrestrained columns since the typical “runaway” failure was not predicted from the finite element analysis. The fire resistances of the composite columns obtained from the finite element analysis were compared with the design values obtained from the Eurocode 4 for composite columns at elevated temperatures. It is shown that the EC4 is generally conservative for all the axially restrained concrete encased steel composite columns, except for some columns with higher load and slenderness ratios.

Numerical simulation of concrete encased steel composite columns

This paper investigates the behaviour of pin-ended axially loaded concrete encased steel composite columns. A nonlinear 3-D finite element model was developed to analyse the inelastic behaviour of steel, concrete, longitudinal and transverse reinforcement bars as well as the effect of concrete confinement of the concrete encased steel composite columns. The interface between the steel section and concrete, the longitudinal and transverse reinforcement bars, and the reinforcement bars and concrete were also considered that allowed the bond behaviour to be modeled and the different components to retain their profile during the deformation of the column. Furthermore, the initial overall (out-of-straightness) geometric imperfection was carefully incorporated in the model. The finite element model has been validated against published experimental results. The main objective of the study was to understand the structural response and modes of failure of the columns and to assess the composite column strengths against current design codes. The study covered slender, non-slender, stub and long concrete encased steel composite columns. The concrete strengths varied from normal to high strength (20–110 MPa). The steel section yield stresses also varied from normal to high strength (275–690 MPa). Furthermore, the variables that influence the composite column behaviour and strength comprising different slenderness ratios, concrete strength and steel yield stress were investigated in a parametric study. It is shown that the increase in structural steel strength has a small effect on the composite column strength for the columns having higher relative slenderness ratios due to the flexural buckling failure mode. The composite column strengths obtained from the finite element analysis were compared with the design strengths calculated using the American Institute for Steel Construction AISC and Eurocode 4 for composite columns. Generally, it is shown that the EC 4 accurately predicted the design strength for the concrete encased steel composite columns having a concrete cylinder strength of 30 MPa and structural steel yield stresses of 275 and 460 MPa, which are in the limits of the code, which otherwise, was generally conservative. The AISC predictions were quite conservative for all the concrete encased steel composite columns.

Eccentrically loaded concrete encased steel composite columns

This paper presents a nonlinear 3-D finite element model for eccentrically loaded concrete encased steel composite columns. The columns were pin-ended subjected to an eccentric load acting along the major axis, with eccentricity varied from 0.125 to 0.375 of the overall depth ( D) of the column sections. The model accounted for the inelastic behaviour of steel, concrete, longitudinal and transverse reinforcement bars as well as the effect of concrete confinement of the concrete encased steel composite columns. The interface between the steel section and concrete, the longitudinal and transverse reinforcement bars, and the reinforcement bars and concrete were also considered allowing the bond behaviour to be modelled and the different components to retain its profile during the deformation of the column. The initial overall geometric imperfection was carefully incorporated in the model. The finite element model has been validated against existing test results. The concrete strengths varied from normal to high strength (30–110 MPa). The steel section yield stresses also varied from normal to high strength (275–690 MPa). Furthermore, the variables that influence the eccentrically loaded composite column behaviour and strength comprising different eccentricities, different column dimensions, different structural steel sizes, different concrete strengths, and different structural steel yield stresses were investigated in a parametric study. Generally, it is shown that the effect on the composite column strength owing to the increase in structural steel yield stress is significant for eccentrically loaded columns with small eccentricity of 0.125 D. On the other hand, for columns with higher eccentricity 0.375 D, the effect on the composite column strength due to the increase in structural steel yield stress is significant for columns with concrete strengths lower than 70 MPa. The strength of composite columns obtained from the finite element analysis were compared with the design strengths calculated using the Eurocode 4 for composite columns. Generally, it is shown that the EC4 accurately predicted the eccentrically loaded composite columns, while overestimated the moment.

Investigation of concrete encased steel composite columns at elevated temperatures

This paper presents a nonlinear 3-D finite element model investigating the behaviour of concrete encased steel composite columns at elevated temperatures. The composite columns were pin-ended axially loaded columns having different cross-sectional dimensions, different structural steel sections, different coarse aggregates and different load ratios during fire. The nonlinear material properties of steel, concrete, longitudinal and transverse reinforcement bars as well as the effect of concrete confinement at ambient and elevated temperatures were considered in the finite element models. The interface between the steel section and concrete, the longitudinal and transverse reinforcement bars, and the reinforcement bars and concrete were also considered allowing the bond behaviour to be modelled and the different components to retain its profile during the deformation of the column. The initial overall (out-of-straightness) geometric imperfection was carefully included in the model. The finite element model has been validated against published tests conducted at elevated temperatures. The time–temperature relationships, deformed shapes at failure, time–axial displacement relationships, failure modes and fire resistances of the columns were evaluated by the finite element model. It has been shown that the finite element model can accurately predict the behaviour of the columns at elevated temperatures. Furthermore, the variables that influence the fire resistance and behaviour of the composite columns comprising different load ratios during fire, different coarse aggregates and different slenderness ratios were investigated in parametric studies. It is shown that the fire resistance of the columns generally increases with the decrease in the column slenderness ratio as well as the increase in the structural steel ratio. It is also shown that the time–axial displacement relationship is considerably affected by the coarse aggregate. The fire resistances of the composite columns obtained from the finite element analyses were compared with the design values obtained from the Eurocode 4 for composite columns at elevated temperatures. It is shown that the EC4 is conservative for all the concrete encased steel composite columns, except for the columns having a load ratio of 0.5 as well as the columns having a slenderness ratio of 0.69 and a load ratio of 0.4.