Transportation Of Petroleum Products Research Articles

Data-Driven Models for Forecasting Failure Modes in Oil and Gas Pipes

Oil and gas pipelines are lifelines for a country’s economic survival. As a result, they must be closely monitored to maximize their performance and avoid product losses in the transportation of petroleum products. However, they can collapse, resulting in dangerous repercussions, financial losses, and environmental consequences. Therefore, assessing the pipe condition and quality would be of great significance. Pipeline safety is ensured using a variety of inspection techniques, despite being time-consuming and expensive. To address these inefficiencies, this study develops a model that anticipates sources of failure in oil pipelines based on specific factors related to pipe diameter and age, service (transported product), facility type, and land use. The model is developed using a multilayer perceptron (MLP) neural network, radial basis function (RBF) neural network, and multinomial logistic (MNL) regression based on historical data from pipeline incidents. With an average validity of 84% for the MLP, 85% for the RBF, and 81% for the MNL, the models can forecast pipeline failures owing to corrosion and third-party activities. The developed model can help pipeline operators and decision makers detect different failure sources in pipelines and prioritize the required maintenance and replacement actions.

THE AUTOMATED RESEARCH OF THE IMPREGNATION PROCESS OF ELASTOMETERS

The problem of field fuel depots remains unsolved today. Incomplete sealing of drain devices and leaks lead to material losses and contamination of the soil, the restoration of which requires considerable time and money. The article presents the overview of existing problems of fuel filling and sealing systems of containers for storage and transportation of petroleum products, fuels and lubricants. (Research purpose) The research purpose is developing a methodology and algorithm for studying the swelling process of polymer materials used in the transportation and storage of fuels and lubricants to determine their durability and residual life. (Materials and methods) The article presents the main disadvantages of drain devices. The statistical analysis of the rejection of tank boilers owned by JSC «PGK» has been performed. The main malfunctions that are the cause of the cistern rejection is a valve malfunction and a residue in the drain device cup, which indicates that the valve is leaky due to a leak in the sealing device. (Results and discussion) A typical technological process for the production of polymer materials samples is presented. Authors have developed technical equipment, selected processing methods for the manufacture of polymer samples and technological equipment. Experimental studies of the effect of hydrocarbons on polymer materials were carried out using traditional methods. The article presents the express methodology and the automated experimental setup, the approbation of which allowed us to speed up the studying process. The article proves the possibility of practical application of the proposed methodology and installation, which gives identical results on the destabilization of the physical and mechanical properties of polymer products operated in a carbon-hydrogen environment. (Conclusions) The proposed express method and the developed scheme of the automated control system are simple to manufacture and are necessary for farms using fuel and lubricants storages of any design from various materials. The results of the data obtained make it possible to predict the operating time and residual resource of polymer materials used in containers for transportation and storage of lubricants in the field.

Continuous time and volume batch formulation for the multiproduct pipeline network scheduling problem

The pipeline is one of the most reliable and economical modes of transport. It is mainly used for petroleum products transportation over long distance. In this paper, we are interested in the multiproduct pipeline network scheduling problem in the context of mining industry. The considered pipeline network is part of OCP's pipeline network for the transportation of phosphate products. A MILP model based on continuous time and volume batch formulation is proposed. It aims to schedule a set of batches to be transported from the main pipeline to intermediate storage groups before delivered to Clients using secondary pipelines. Each batch can be composed of several blocks. The objective is to maximize the main pipeline utilization rate with smallest number of blocks to satisfy all clients’ demands. A set of short-term plan horizon instances are generated and the results show that the proposed model gives effectively optimal or near-optimal solutions of these instances.

CFD investigation of the effect of solid particles on the power consumption of a 20-inch centrifugal pump for the transportation of petroleum products

One of the main challenges in oil transmission lines and petroleum products is fluid impurities especially suspended solids. Suspended solid particles, most of which are caused by corrosion of pipe walls and equipment, have many adverse effects on the life and performance of transmission systems. One of the components most affected by solid particles is the pumps. These devices are the beating heart of oil transmission lines. Their performance has a direct impact on the performance of transmission lines. Therefore, the effect of diameter and weight percentage of solid particles on the power consumption of a sample of pumps used in one of the oil transmission lines is investigated. To this end, the pump is simulated numerically in real dimensions and the particle motion in the pump chamber is modeled using an Eulerian–Lagrangian approach. The transferred fluid is liquid gasoline with C8H18 formula and 761 kg density. The fluid flow is assumed to be incompressible, steady, and turbulent and the effect of the suspended solid particles on the pump power consumption is investigated. The results indicate that the size and amount of particle accumulation can significantly increase the pump power consumption.

The risk assessment of a crude oil pipeline using fuzzy and bayesian based bow-tie analysis

Cross country pipelines are one of the major modes of transportation of petroleum products. Due to external and internal factors, the failure probability of pipeline is increasing over the past decades. The failure of pipelines can cause fires, which can result in environmental damage, loss of materials and further resulting into casualties. Effective risk assessment is vital to prevent and mitigate such potential incidents. In this work, an efficient tool that makes use of Bayesian approach along with Bow-tie analysis is used to obtain the failure frequencies of all the identified causes that may lead to failure of the selected pipeline located in Kerala, India. Bayesian networks can perform effective dynamic risk analysis by considering the conditional dependencies between various basic events leading to pipeline failure. The fuzzy logic and expert elicitation method are incorporated to determine the prior failure frequencies of all the identified causes of pipeline failure. The effectiveness of Bayesian network in performing forward analysis to determine the probabilities of pipeline failure consequences is demonstrated. This study also identifies the weak links associated with the occurrence of particular consequences, so that adequate measures can be taken to rectify them.

Experimental study of the flow force applied to the marine pipelines in different conditions using the momentum absorption method

ABSTRACT Submarine pipelines are one of the safest ways to transport crude oil and its derivatives, and this necessitates a more careful study of the technical knowledge governing this issue. Compared to other methods of transporting petroleum products. such as the use of tankers. the use of pipelines has many advantages, including the low impact of their environmental pollution. In this study, the measurement of flow force applied to the submarine pipelines was experimentally measured using a system of load cell. This was done using a special type of flume called a knife edge flume with a length of 14 m, width of 1 m and height of 1 m. The flow force was measured directly using an electronic dynamometer (Load cell). In this study, five different pipe diameter of 5, 10, 20, 25, and 35 cm were used to model submarine pipelines at different distances as double and single pipelines. It was also tested at different depths of submergence and tested at three different buried depths. Furthermore, the results of the absorption method were compared with the results of force measurement obtained from other methods, and it was found that the force absorption method provides reliable results. Based on the experiments, it was found that methods based on energy principles do not have acceptable results except in small-diameter pipes. Also, with increasing the diameter of the pipelines and increasing the depth and increasing the depth of submergence, the amount of force applied by the flow on the pipelines increases. Furthermore, the buried depth is inversely proportional to the force applied. In dual pipelines, the taller distance between the pipelines leads to taller force applied to them. It can also be seen that the diameter of the pipes is the most effective factor in the force applied by the flow on the submarine pipelines.

MODERN MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES FOR OIL TRANSPORT COMPANIES

Introduction. Modern economic development and strengthening of national security are impossible without the use of modern strategic approaches to the management of the companies’ activity. The oil refining industry is no exception today, namely in terms of the management of the oil transport companies that play the principal role in strengthening the fuel and energy security of the country. The challenges generated by economic, social, and political factors are important because they have a direct impact on the process of functioning of all companies operating in the system. The paper aims to outline the main tools and determine modern management strategies for oil transport companies. Results. The paper substantiates the nature of the companies’ strategic management. The structure of the oil transport system in Ukraine is examined. The current condition of the oil transport companies’ activity is characterized. The modern approaches are determined and a range of activities to boost the development of modern management strategies for the oil transport companies is suggested. The legal framework of relationships in the transportation of petroleum products is analyzed. The paper proves that strategic management plays an important role in the launching and development of the entrepreneurial activity. The author emphasizes the need and importance to develop management tactics and strategy to achieve maximum benefits in the future in managerial decision-making. Special attention is paid to the need for public policy supporting the management of the oil transport companies. Conclusions. The ways to improve the management strategies for the oil transport companies are suggested. The paper provides a range of recommendations directed at determining the principal tools and mechanisms of their application when developing the management strategy for the oil transport enterprises. Keywords: innovations, oil transport companies, strategies, economic entities.

HMDCS-UV: A concept study of Hybrid Monitoring, Detection and Cleaning System for Unmanned Vehicles.

Incidents of hydraulic or oil spills in the oceans/seas or ports occur with some regularity during the exploitation, production and transportation of petroleum products. Immediate, safe, effective and environmentally friendly measures must be adopted to reduce the impact of the oil spill on marine life. Due to the difficulty to detect and clean these areas, semi-autonomous vehicles can make a significant contribution by implementing a cooperative and coordinated response. The paper proposes a concept study of Hybrid Monitoring Detection and Cleaning System (HMDCS-UV) for a maritime region using semi-autonomous unmanned vehicles. This system is based on a cooperative decision architecture for an unmanned aerial vehicle to monitor and detect dirty zones (i.e., hydraulic spills), and clean them up using a swarm of unmanned surface vehicles. The proposed solutions were implemented in a real cloud and were evaluated using different simulation scenarios. Experimental results show that the proposed HMDCS-UV can detect and reduce the level of hydraulic pollution in maritime regions with a significant gain in terms of energy consumption.

Meaningful Engagement: Improving and Expanding Tribal Engagement in Federal Emergency Response in the Pacific Northwest

Abstract: The Northwest Region (the states of Washington, Oregon, and Idaho) of the United States is home to 43 federally recognized treaty Tribes, who are resource co-managers within their traditional territories and have both decision-making power and sovereign legal rights. There is also a significant refinement and transportation of petroleum products (by rail, pipeline, and vessel) within this area and in our transboundary waters. In Washington alone, more than 20 billion gallons are moved through and across the state on an annual basis. The Northwest Area Committee (NWAC) and Region 10 Regional Response Team (RRT10), the federally mandated bodies which conduct oil pollution and hazardous materials spill response planning, are therefore robust and very active. Within the last decade, tribal engagement in the NWAC and RRT10 has expanded significantly; the RRT10 now has three official tribal members, and the NWAC has supported a Tribal Engagement Task Force for the past four years and is currently looking at transitioning it to a longer-term and more permanent sub-committee strategy. This presentation will discuss the following pieces of the efforts towards tribal engagement in the NWAC/RRT10: 1) The evolution of tribal engagement in the RRT10/NWAC and lessons learned from this process 2) A case study of the unique experience of the Makah Tribe's engagement with the greater response community including both becoming the first tribal member of the NWAC/RRT10 and the development of their memorandum of agreement with the US Coast Guard, and 3) Results from the 2019 Tribal Engagement Task Force's tribal feedback survey (sent out to all Tribes in the region) to identify barriers and strategies for improved meaningful tribal engagement. This reflects the commitment of the NWAC/RRT10 to improving tribal engagement by understanding; the results can not only inform partners in other regions but will inform the next phase of the NWAC/RRT10's approach to tribal engagement. The Northwest Area model for tribal engagement in oil spill planning, preparedness, and response is an important precedent for national and international engagement with Indigenous peoples in this arena.

Biosurfactant as an Environmental Remediation Agent: Toxicity, Formulation, and Application in the Removal of Petroderivate in Sand and Rock Walls

The exploitation and transportation of petroleum products are important reasons for environmental concern since they are the major causes of accidents involving oil spills. Therefore, the biosurfactant produced by the bacterium Bacillus cereus UCP1615 was applied in the removal of motor oil from sand and stones from coastal regions. Bioassays carried out with the microcrustacean Artemia salina and three vegetables' seeds showed that the biosurfactant has reduced toxicity. The application of the biosurfactant in crude and isolated form, as a removal agent, was carried out in static and kinetic tests using sand contaminated with motor oil, in packed columns, and in flasks under orbital agitation, respectively. The results showed that the biosurfactant removed 63.0 ±2.1% of the hydrocarbon in the static test and 84.0 ±2.2% in the dynamic test. In tests using rock wall samples, the removal rates reached 69.0 ±2.0%. Conservation tests carried out during 120 days demonstrated that the surfactant activities were maintained, especially in the presence of the preservative potassium sorbate. The B. cereus biosurfactant has proven to be a biocompatible, effective, and stable alternative for applications in environments contaminated with hydrophobic compounds and can be industrially stored for application in the event of possible environmental disasters.

Hemocyte Health Status Based on Four Biomarkers to Assess Recovery Capacity in American Lobster (Homarus americanus) after Exposure to Marine Diesel and Diluted Bitumen

The growing transportation of petroleum products pose a significant risk of marine diesel or diluted bitumen (dilbit) spills at sea. Despite the economic importance of the American lobster, there have been few studies assessing the impact study of such a spill on their population. In the lobster industry, lobster quality is monitored according to the Brix index of hemolymph. In our research, the effectiveness of three other biomarkers operative in the industry was assessed in hemolymph during contamination (over 96 h) by marine diesel and dilbit (Cold Lake Blend; CLB), as well as in the subsequent recovery period, according to two temperature cycles. At the end of the experiment, chemical and tainting assays were performed. Our results demonstrate that, among the four tested biomarkers, lysosomal stability and ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase (EROD) induction exhibit higher sensitivity. Increasing the temperature did not shorten the recovery period. Viability cellular impacts were greater in lobsters exposed to dilbit than that in those exposed to marine diesel. Marine diesel exposure appears to be more problematic for the lobster fishery, as the cooked lobster meat still presented a hydrocarbon odor even after 3 months of live holding. Finally, the high PAH concentrations measured in lobster eggs suggest potential adverse transgenerational effects of marine diesel exposure.

Mogućnost primjene ekološki prihvatljivog načina rada generatora inertnog plina na Long Range 2 tankerima tijekom iskrcaja

Long Range 2 tankers are the largest ships used for the transportation of petroleum products. Although more than 400 Long Range 2 tankers are navigating the world’s sea, many of the terminals, at which these ships discharge their cargo, do not utilize their discharging capacity to the full extent. This is due to the technological obsolescence of the terminal and the fact that these terminals are primarily designed to accommodate smaller tankers, such as Medium Range and Long Range 1 tankers. The reduced discharge capacity leads to longer ship stay in the port and increased air pollution due to the release of inert gas into the atmosphere since terminals unnecessarily insist on the continuous operation of the inert gas generator. This paper explains a possible solution to this problem by using environmentally friendly START/STOP operation mode of an inert gas generator using methods of analysis and synthesis, comparative methods and elements of the mathematical method. Environmentally friendly operation mode requires minimal modification of the software program and it is very easy to perform. This mode has a positive effect on reducing overall gas emissions and significant fuel savings.

Steel Production Technology Development for the Manufacture of Pipes Used in the Extraction and Transportation of Petroleum Products

The technology has been developed for the production of low-carbon and microalloyed steel for the production of strips in order to manufacture small and medium-diameter pipes for the extraction and transportation of petroleum products. The developed technology allows to obtain stable corrosion properties, according to the NACE Standard TM 0284 technique, in a hot-rolled condition from slab with thickness more than 200 mm and with a content of more than 0.03% of carbon, which is very difficult in terms of ensuring the availability of inclusions and heterogeneity in the structure - as the main reasons for the reduced fracture toughness of steels working in acid media (in environments saturated with H2S). The obtained results allowed, with minimum costs, to prepare the previously developed integrated computer model (STAN 2000) for calculating the structure and mechanical properties. Calculations using the model made it possible to select such temperature-deformation regimes, which would be the minimum structural inhomogeneity over the section of the thickness of the hot-rolled strip. The results obtained: corrosion resistance repeatedly confirmed by the absence of cracks at the beginning after testing in accordance with the procedure Standard TM 0284.

Optimization of technology of special-purpose mineral wool products

Insulation systems must have a number of special properties when used on construction sites located in the zone of significant negative temperatures, wind load, and associated air filtration through building struc-tures, under the influence of the coastal environment that forms salts on tech-nical facilities associated with the production and transportation of petro-leum products. Firstly, high operational stability, including under the influ-ence of aggressive environments. Secondly, they must be non-flammable and have significant fire resistance limits. Thirdly, do not contain compo-nents that are toxic during normal operation or are released in the event of a fire. The analysis of possibilities has shown that products based on stone wool meet these requirements to the greatest extent as a thermal insulation material. The research presented in the article is based on a hypothesis about the use of products based on stone wool and epoxy binder on latent hardeners, which will allow us to obtain an energy-efficient material that fully meets the conditions of polar construction. The purpose of the research was to develop a method for selecting the parameters of manufacturing mineral wool products that affect the properties of mineral wool slabs to the greatest extent and to opti-mize the temperature of heat treatment of mineral wool carpet. Re-search methodology set out in the article is based on the method of mathematical planning of experiment and statistical processing of the results, followed by analytical optimization.

ГЕОЭКОЛОГИЧЕСКИЙ МОНИТОРИНГ ЗАГРЯЗНЕНИЙ ПОДЗЕМНЫХ ВОД В РЕГИОНАХ НЕФТЕДОБЫВАЮЩЕЙ И НЕФТЕПЕРЕРАБАТЫВАЮЩЕЙ ПРОМЫШЛЕННОСТИ

Relevance of the work: Currently, the oil production and refining industry has a huge impact on underground water. The negative impact of petroleum products on the environment, including the pollution of underground water, is quite relevant not only around the world, but also specifically in our region. The purpose of the work: to reveal the influence of the oil-producing and oil-refining industries on underground water, to reveal the sources of pollution, pollutants in the areas of the oil-producing and oil-refining industries, as well as the conditions for the protection of underground water. Method of work: analysis of literary sources, scientific research. The results of the work and the scope of their application: Groundwater pollution is local or regional in nature, it occurs under the influence of man-made and natural processes. It is established that the flow of petroleum products and oil into underground waters is possible due to the leakage of raw materials at the stage of preparation for transportation and transportation of petroleum products, at the stage of operation and drilling of wells, etc., and the most dangerous pollutants are ground water pollution. The danger of contamination of underground waters with oil and petroleum products is dangerous because in this regard, various bacteria develop in underground waters that can cause various mutations, diseases; underground water is a strategic reserve of drinking water; it is almost impossible to clean underground water when oil wells break through; self-purification of underground water occurs for a long time. To reduce the negative impact, it is necessary to carefully monitor the performance of equipment, adhere to certain standards at oil production and oil refining enterprises.

Machinability, weldability and surface treatment studies of SDSS 2507 material-A review

Super duplex stainless steel 2507, is a difficult to machine material due to high chromium content. Knowledge on machinability, weldability and surface treatment of 2507 super duplex stainless steel material is necessary due to the increase in demand of this material in variety of application in engineering and medical fields. In this review, machinability studies on turning and milling of SDSS 2507 is discussed. Weldability of SDSS 2507 material is also reviewed in this paper. Effect of heat and chemical treatments on strength, ductility, resistance to corrosion, wear, crack propagation and pitting characteristics of this material are included. Machining with wet, minimal quantity lubrication and dry conditions are analyzed. From the review, it was found that machinability can be improved by machining at high cutting speed and low feed rate along with proper selection of tool. Welding of SDSS 2507 material with similar and dissimilar materials is also discussed. Literatures on the studies on machining of SDSS 2507 material, especially on milling of SDSS material is very less compared to turning operation. Review revealed that SDSS 2507 material possess better strength, ductility and corrosion resistance properties compared to Austenitic SS and Ferritic SS. The present paper recommends the usage of tougher insert grades for machining. From this review, it is clear that SDSS 2507 material can be used in corrosion prone environments due to its high resistance to corrosion and pitting characteristics. SDSS 2507 material can also replace duplex stainless steel in storage and transportation of petroleum products, piping, etc. due to its exceptional characteristics.

КОНЦЕПТУАЛЬНЫЕ ОСНОВАНИЯ НЕЗАВИСИМОЙ ОЦЕНКИ КВАЛИФИКАЦИИ ВЫПУСКНИКОВ ПЕДАГОГИЧЕСКИХ НАПРАВЛЕНИЙ ПОДГОТОВКИ

The aim of the article is to describe the elements of the conception of an independent assessment of the qualifications of pedagogy graduates. The National Education Project sets the task of ensuring the global competitiveness of Russian education. The federal project “Teacher of the Future” aims to introduce a national system for teachers’ professional development. The author’s analysis of the literature on the problem showed that general problems of qualifications certification are being investigated. A number of publications describe the purpose, functions and procedures of qualifications assessment in assessment and certification centers. Scholars and practitioners point to the need to create an all-Russian authorized body in the qualifications assessment and certification system. The problems of organizing the activities of qualifications assessment centers as a tool for assessing the quality of education are considered. Publications considering the problem of qualifications assessment in various economy sectors, such as tourism and service, state and municipal service, construction, finance, petroleum products transportation and nanoindustry, are presented. Some works analyze the qualifications assessment of teachers and job training instructors of secondary vocational education institutions, and university staff. Several publications discuss the independent assessment of the qualifications of secondary pedagogical education institution graduates, but the problem of an independent assessment of the qualifications of higher pedagogical education program graduates remains little studied. Consequently, the development of a conception for an independent assessment of pedagogy graduates’ qualifications is relevant. The key idea of the conception the author presents is that the independent assessment of the qualifications of pedagogical training graduates is considered as a quality assurance tool. Quality assurance is achieved by comparing the results of mastering federal state higher educational standards and the requirements of professional standards. The author describes the elements of the conception: regulatory framework and innovative components. The regulatory framework in the conception structure is set at the federal level and contains legislation, requirements, methods, guidelines. The innovative conception components include the characteristics of the participants, conditions, motivational components and areas of activity, content lines and methods of assessment, a toolkit for a substantive description of professional advantages and disadvantages, reflexive and effective components, and a mechanism for implementing the conception. Specification and implementation of the conception are designated as a prospect of the research.

The history of oil transportation logistics: the experience of interaction between water and rail transport

The paper reveals the historical aspects of the use of unique schemes for the delivery of oil cargo. The authors also consider the experience of modern transport and technological systems for oil transportation, developed by the expansion of logistics tools and principles of logistic. The study of schemes for the transportation of petroleum products in polymodal transport systems in a historical context gives the idea of the uniqueness of certain methods of cargo delivery. The modern development of logistics, technologies and infrastructure in the supply of oil and cargoes demonstrate a completely different level of industrial and environmental safety.

АЛГОРИТМ ОПТИМИЗАЦИИ ПАРАМЕТРОВ НЕФТЕПРОВОДОВ ПРИ ПРОЕКТИРОВАНИИ ОБОРУДОВАНИЯ НЕФТЕХИМИЧЕСКОЙ ПРОМЫШЛЕННОСТИ

The problem of technical and economic optimization of pipeline parameters for transportation of petroleum products exhibiting a viscosity anomaly is considered. The relations for determination of optimal pipeline diameter and pressure, providing pumping of the medium in the laminar, steady, isothermal regime on the pipeline from the condition of minimizing the total annual cost of its development and operation based on current prices and tariffs for the pipeline and energy topology of the pipeline, its working conditions, as well as anomalies of the viscosity of the transported medium.

Study of synthesis processes of heat-insulating silicate materials for external protection of steel oil pipelines

Thermal insulation of steel oil pipelines allows to extend their service life and provide optimal characteristics of the petroleum products transportation. Currently used heat-insulating materials do not meet the requirements of durability and fire safety. Their most promising replacement is porous silicate materials, and one of their main advantages is the possibility to use various types of local raw materials. On the basis of the diatomite of the Chernoyarskoe deposit, the initial batch compositions were developed, their synthesis was carried out by the hydrate foaming mechanism, after which the density of the synthesized samples was determined and their internal structure was studied. The effect of each of the batch components on the intensity of melting and foaming of the initial diatomite was established. It was shown that the introduction of sodium hydroxide lowers the melting point, and the removal of chemically bound water during heating allows to obtain a porous structure. Sodium fluoride, which was introduced as flux, significantly reduces the viscosity of diatomite and, accordingly, the melting point. Using the differential thermal analysis, the physicochemical processes occurring during the thermal treatment of samples were investigated. It was found that mass loss is ensured by the removal of physically and chemically bound water at temperatures of 66.8–75.2 °C and 119.5–124.8 °C, respectively. Moreover, for compositions with the addition of sodium hydroxide, the total amount of bound water reaches 22.99–24.25 % due to the dehydration of sodium hydrosilicates. When processing the batches, observed endothermic effects were corresponded to the evaporation of physically and chemically bound water, and the polymorphic β-quartz → α-quartz transformation at 575 °C. The revealed regularities of the mechanism of diatomaceous raw materials foaming of make it possible to optimize the developed compositions and to obtain high-quality heat-insulating material for pipeline protection. The work was supported by the Russian Science Foundation, Project # 18-19-00455 “Development of integrated protection technology for oil and gas pipelines, operated in the Far East of Russia” within the framework of the 2018 competition “Conducting fundamental scientific research and exploratory scientific research by individual scientific groups”.