Transportation Options Research Articles

Complements or competitors? Equity implications of taxis and ride-hail use in Chicago

Taxis have provided on-demand mobility for decades, including to people earning the lowest incomes. However, studies reveal gaps in taxi service across many US cities due to factors such as fleet size limitations, information asymmetry, and discriminatory practices. Since 2010, the emergence of ride-hail services such as Uber and Lyft has revolutionized the transportation landscape, offering faster and more affordable alternatives to traditional taxis. Yet it remains unclear the extent to which ride-hail services may fill spatial-temporal gaps in taxi services or how car access shifted after the arrival of ride-hail services. Additionally, taxis may still play an important role in car access for people who rely on cash payments. This study uses longitudinal trip-level ride-hail and taxi data in Chicago, IL, to examine the shifting trip patterns across the two modes. We compared the spatial-temporal pattern of taxi and ride-hail trips, as well as the share of taxi trips paid for in cash across three periods; we then developed spatial regression models to investigate what factors relate to taxi cash payments. Results show that ride-hail services may, directly and indirectly, fill taxi service gaps. Additionally, population density, land use mix, and the proportion of people of color and zero-car households are positively related to the share of taxi trips paid in cash, while the number of ride-hail trips and banking density are negatively associated with the percentage of cash payments. Policymakers should consider the evolving interplay between taxi and ride-hail services and the significance of cash payments to ensure equitable access to transportation options for individuals without cars.

Investigating the Behaviour of Railway Track Ground Vibrations for Different Track Foundation Conditions Using FEM

High-speed trains are a useful friendly option for ground transportation. Railway-induced ground vibrations can have a severe impact on human health and the communities that surround rail lines. Current research is showing the problem and its solution as technology is advancing steadily, still, there are some misunderstandings. This is because the propagation of railway vibration in urban areas is complex. So, this work focuses on reducing vibration by enhancing the ballast, and sub-ballast qualities of the railway track through the use of insulation technologies. The Finite Element Method (FEM) model offers insight into how vibrations propagate over a railway track’s foundation. The FEM model can be used to forecast the frequency of vibrations. The Plaxis 3D model’s results show a reduction in vibration propagation. Sylomer is used as a damping material to absorb the vibration and block the propagation path. The application of damping material changes the track-bed system’s dynamic response, effectively decreasing vibration transmission to the surrounding soil. Stress on the surrounding soil and structure foundation is reduced by the process of vibration mitigation. Establishing a benchmark reference for soil parameters is crucial for the accurate analysis and prediction of ground behavior. By creating a detailed and standardized set of soil data, engineers and planners can better understand the characteristics and capabilities of the ground on which they intend to build.

Barriers to Childhood Immunization in Rural and Remote Areas: A Qualitative Exploration From the Perspectives of Community Leaders in Sindh, Pakistan.

Despite overall improvements observed at the national level, there is a significant disparity in childhood vaccination coverage rates between urban and rural regions, particularly within tribal and remote areas in Pakistan. Our study aimed to explore the views of community/tribal leaders concerning barriers and their local solutions for improving vaccine uptake, with a specific focus on remote settings. An exploratory qualitative research study was conducted from July to September 2019 in Shikarpur, Sindh, Pakistan. We interviewed 11 community leaders, after developing a semi-structured interview guide based on the health belief model. Following validation, the collected data was transcribed and subsequently translated into the English language. A stepwise process of manual familiarization, coding, theme generation, and theme review using an inductive approach was followed. While most of the rural community leaders expressed a willingness to support vaccinations, numerous unexplored barriers were identified. These barriers included an unsustainable communication system heavily dependent on polio mobile teams, discourteous behavior of healthcare personnel, cultural restrictions that limited women's involvement, economic hardships, limited transportation options, insufficient collaboration with the education sector, poor knowledge among community leaders, and security concerns. Additionally, they proposed some innovative solutions of information dissemination methods through the Ottaque system, ethics-based training, subsidized transportation services or voucher system, and addressing security concerns in collaboration with community leaders. Our findings suggest policymakers take both community leaders and members for an inclusive policy-making process to redraft the special policy for these remote and rural areas.

A Mathematical Model for Green Leaves Diet Using Ranking of Tridecagonal Fuzzy Numbers

This study presents a new way of ranking transportation options using tridecagonal fuzzy numbers. This approach takes into account factors such as demand, supply, and transportation costs, and aims to provide a more optimized solution for these fuzzy environments. With the rising importance of healthy eating habits, particularly emphasizing green leafy vegetables, devising an effective dietary plan becomes imperative. Traditional approaches often overlook the inherent uncertainty and fuzziness in dietary preferences and nutritional requirements. In this context, tridecagonal fuzzy numbers offer a robust framework to represent and analyze uncertain dietary preferences. Our ultimate goal is to promote a green leaf diet that is both affordable and widely available, while also improving the overall health and well-being of the general public. This research contributes to the advancement of mathematical modelling in nutrition science, offering a valuable tool for promoting healthier dietary choices and lifestyle habits.

Understanding multimodal mobility patterns of micromobility users in urban environments: insights from Barcelona

AbstractMicromobility, which includes bicycle-sharing systems, e-scooters, and shared moped-style scooters, has emerged as a popular alternative to traditional transport modes in urban environments, thus expanding the number of transportation options available to urban travellers. Previous research has primarily relied on trip-based data to explore the multimodal character of micromobility. However, existing evidence has failed to understand the ways in which urban travellers have reshaped their mobility patterns as a consequence of the introduction of micromobility. Using a travel survey (N = 902) set in Barcelona, Spain, cluster techniques are used to group micromobility users according to their frequency of use of three different micromobility modes (bicycle-sharing systems, private e-scooter, and moped-style scooter-sharing services). Then, a multinomial logistic regression was used, in order to explore each cluster’s usage of traditional modes of transport, along with all potential weekly combinations between modes. Results show that most micromobility users rely on a single type of micromobility mode on a weekly basis. The model further indicates that private e-scooter, shared bicycle, and shared moped-style scooter users develop different weekly mobility combination patterns. While personal micromobility options (private e-scooter) are associated with monomodal tendencies, sharing services (bicycle sharing and moped-style scooter sharing) encourage multimodal behaviours. These findings contribute to the limited knowledge concerning the role of some micromobility alternatives in creating more rational and less habit-dependent travel behaviour choices.

Beyond "Taming Electric Scooters": Disentangling Understandings of Micromobility Naturalistic Riding

Electric(e)-scooters have emerged as a popular, ubiquitous, and first/last-mile micromobility transportation option within and across many cities worldwide. With the increasing situation-awareness and on-board computational capability, such intelligent micromobility has become a critical means of understanding the rider's interactions with other traffic constituents (called Rider-to-X Interactions, RXIs), such as pedestrians, cars, and other micromobility vehicles, as well as road environments, including curbs, road infrastructures, and traffic signs. How to interpret these complex, dynamic, and context-dependent RXIs, particularly for the rider-centric understandings across different data modalities --- such as visual, behavioral, and textual data --- is essential for enabling safer and more comfortable micromobility riding experience and the greater good of urban transportation networks. Under a naturalistic riding setting (i.e., without any unnatural constraint on rider's decision-making and maneuvering), we have designed, implemented, and evaluated a pilot Cross-modality E-scooter Naturalistic Riding Understanding System, namely CENRUS, from a human-centered AI perspective. We have conducted an extensive study with CENRUS in sensing, analyzing, and understanding the behavioral, visual, and textual annotation data of RXIs during naturalistic riding. We have also designed a novel, efficient, and usable disentanglement mechanism to conceptualize and understand the e-scooter naturalistic riding processes, and conducted extensive human-centered AI model studies. We have performed multiple downstream tasks enabled by the core model within CENRUS to derive the human-centered AI understandings and insights of complex RXIs, showcasing such downstream tasks as efficient information retrieval and scene understanding. CENRUS can serve as a foundational system for safe and easy-to-use micromobility rider assistance as well as accountable use of micromobility vehicles.

Understanding transportation-related health determinants and their interrelationships in rural U.S.

BackgroundTransportation and health are undeniably related topics. Transportation choices impact our physical and mental health, affecting our activity levels and access to different opportunities. In recent years, research on the transportation and health domain has mainly focused on urban settings, while the rural population has been overlooked. Research is needed to explore the complex relationships across transportation-related health determinants in the rural context and support policies prioritizing health in these areas. MethodsA conceptual framework is proposed based on an extensive literature review to identify the factors representing the transportation and health relationships in the rural U.S. Confirmatory factor analyses are employed to identify the variables representing each transportation-related health determinant. A structural equation model (SEM) is then estimated to quantify the relationships between these determinants in the rural U.S. For this endeavor, we collected individual data from an online survey and available secondary spatial data. A policy approach, the ABC PATH, is also proposed to support community health through transportation changes. ResultsWe find strong and significant associations across all transportation-related health determinants, particularly with physical activity. Decreasing car usage and providing alternative transportation options can increase health and well-being. The proposed ABC PATH policy approach comprehensively promotes a healthy lifestyle and identifies potential interventions, with particular attention to vulnerable groups. ConclusionsThis paper presents a conceptual framework and quantifies the complex interrelationships between transportation and health in rural areas. The policy implications suggest that decision-makers must identify all-inclusive solutions and promote active lifestyles, considering the interlinked connections of the transportation-related determinants examined herein.

Habits and the subexploration of better transportation options: A dual-system approach

In psychology, choices are influenced by either goal-directed or habitual systems, which are represented by model-based (MB) and model-free (MF) reinforcement learning algorithms. This paper introduces these concepts into the transportation literature and shows that individuals with habitual tendencies often fail to consider new, potentially superior, alternatives. Across two experiments, participants chose between two bus options, with a third, objectively superior option introduced in a later phase. In both experiments, participants engaging in habitual behavior were less likely to explore the new alternative. Furthermore, we found habitual tendencies were moderated by self-reported stress levels, which is consistent with previous results in the psychological literature. This implies that new transportation modes or routes may remain underused as travelers adhere to habitual patterns, disregarding the introduction of potentially better alternatives, and prompt for public policies that aim to promote goal-directed behavior.

“Fun, faster than walking, and more convenient than a bike”: Skateboarding in a college town

BackgroundVulnerable road users (those walking, or using bikes, scooters, or skateboards, for example) are common on college campuses and in college towns. As a mode of transportation, skateboards have not received much recognition, even as their popularity has increased. This study aimed to examine the perceptions and experiences of those who engage in skateboarding in and around a college town and its campus via qualitative interviews. MethodsAn interview script was developed to investigate the experiences of those who used a skateboard for transportation. Queries included reasons for using a skateboard, local perceptions, existing barriers and enablers, and past experiences. Responses were gathered via both one-on-one interview and hardcopy interview and were transcribed and analyzed for common themes. ResultsForty-two interviews were conducted an analyzed. Participants shed light on several themes included reasons for using a skateboard for transportation; physical health and emotional well-being; feelings of accomplishment; and community connectedness (or exclusivity). DiscussionThe results of this study offer a unique perspective, as those who used a skateboard exhibited a heightened sense of place, community connectiveness, and accessibility, coupled with physical activity and stress relief. However, they found the mixed messaging present in the transportation landscape to be alienating, effectively discouraging skateboarding as a transportation option by making those using skateboards feel unwelcome no matter where they ride. ConclusionSkateboarding is not as visually or publicly supported by infrastructure and culture as are cycling and walking, unintentionally hindering the benefits of skateboard use. All vulnerable road users need to be considered in transportation planning. Where completely separated travel lanes are not feasible, shared travel spaces, or the redesignation of existing bike lanes and sidewalks for multiple use, might help overcome many issues that are rooted in exclusion.

Analysis of Decarbonization Potential in Mobility Sector with High Spatial Resolution: Study Case of the Metropolitan Area of Valencia (Spain)

This study addresses the urgent need for sustainable urban mobility through a comprehensive analysis of decarbonization potential in the metropolitan area of Valencia, Spain. The research is motivated by the imperative to mitigate climate change amidst high traffic and congestion levels. Utilizing the Origin–Destination matrix from the Valencian community’s mobility plan, the study prioritizes displacements for substitution by sustainable alternatives. Through a detailed case study analysis, critical areas for decarbonization are identified, and practical strategies to reduce carbon emissions are proposed. The methodology encompasses a thorough literature review on decarbonization measures, examination of existing plans, and analysis of sustainable trips with high spatial resolution using geographic information systems (GISs). The study identifies trips with significant decarbonization potential and assesses the current public transportation network. Spatial analyses illustrate demand patterns for sustainable transport options, emphasizing the need for tailored strategies. Key findings highlight the role of private and commercial transport in CO2 emissions, advocating for targeted interventions to enhance active transport infrastructure, promote carpooling, adopt low-emission vehicles, and improve public transport accessibility and efficiency.

Assessing Road Users’ Preferences for Various Travel Demand Management Strategies for Adoption in Accra, Ghana

The rise in population density, vehicle ownership, and urban development has significantly influenced travel demand and altered travel patterns, leading to traffic congestion in rapidly growing urban centers such as Accra, Ghana. The traditional approach of expanding roadways to accommodate rising traffic is no longer environmentally sustainable. Instead, the emphasis has shifted toward travel demand management (TDM) strategies as a more sustainable solution. This study aimed to investigate a range of TDM strategies that can be adopted in Accra to improve traffic flow through the lenses of everyday road users. The study employed a questionnaire survey and a stratified sampling technique to gather data from 615 respondents for relative importance index (RII) ranking and Chi-square statistical analysis. The findings revealed that the topmost preferred strategies were mass transit improvements, walking and cycling improvements, and alternative work schedules. Notably, mass transit improvements emerged as the most preferred strategy. Conversely, strategies like efficient parking pricing, congestion pricing, and higher fuel and road taxes for private vehicles ranked lowest, garnering minimal preference. The study also revealed a statistically significant correlation between variables such as age, education level, marital status, income level, and mode of transportation and all the selected TDM preferences. However, no significant relationship was found between gender or car ownership and any of the selected TDM preferences. The study provides valuable insights into road users’ preferences for TDM strategies that can aid in planning future urban mobility systems to proactively manage travel demand, alleviate congestion, and promote sustainable transportation options for the city’s residents.

The influence of two and three-dimensional spatial characteristics of industrial parks on the emotional well-being of employees: A case study of Shenzhen

Enhancing the emotions of the workers within industrial parks is crucial for achieving the sustainable development goal (SDG). However, evidence on the impact of industrial park environmental layouts on emotions is limited due to the low attention on the workers in the industrial park. Based on a framework of two-dimensional (2D) industrial park morphology indicators and three-dimensional (3D) spatial objective perception, this study aims to compare and analyze the effect of environmental characteristics in Shenzhen's industrial parks on workers' emotions by using emotional geography and social media data. The potential mechanism that environmental characteristic variables influence the positive emotion index (PEI) is also explored. Using the natural language processing (NLP) to analyze the Weibo check-in data, the study captures the daily emotions of workers in industrial parks. By adopting the linear and spatial regression models, this research reveals the complex relationship between the environmental layout of the total 425 industrial parks in Shenzhen city and the corresponding emotions of the workers. The conclusions are as follows: (1) There is a significant correlation between the environmental layout of the industrial parks and the emotions of the workers, with the correlation among 3D variables being higher than that among 2D variables considering spatial effects. (2) There is a certain degree of coordination and contradiction between the morphological indicators of the industrial parks and the spatial objective perception variables, necessitating the planners to consider both macro-scale and micro-perception environmental characteristics to enhance the workers' emotions. (3) In addition to higher accessibility and more public transportation options, the safer, wider, relatively more open streets, more perceivable green spaces, and richer street life can promote the positive emotions among the workers. On the contrary, the enclosed environments, the dense and overwhelming buildings, and the excessive road density may lead to negative emotions. This study contributes to establish the environmental layouts for the industrial parks that foster positive worker emotions and offer insights for the sustainable development of the industrial parks.

Decarbonizing Urban Mobility: A Methodology for Shifting Modal Shares to Achieve CO2 Reduction Targets

In most urban areas, mobility is predominantly reliant on automobiles, leading to significant negative environmental impacts, such as noise pollution, air pollution, and greenhouse gas emissions. To meet the objectives of the Paris Agreement, urgent action is required to decarbonize the mobility sector. This necessitates the development of assessment and planning tools to create effective decarbonization scenarios. Urban mobility must evolve to reduce dependency on fossil fuels by increasing public transport options and promoting active modes of transportation. This research presents a methodology to estimate the modal share required to shift car users to active modes and public transport, thereby achieving future CO2 emission reduction targets in the road transport sector. A case study in Braga, Portugal, demonstrates that to meet the 2040 target of 59,150 tons of CO2, 63% of trips must be made using active modes (e.g., walking and cycling) and 32% by public transport.

Consumer perception towards electric cars, an inductive study with specific reference to the Jordanian market

Electric cars are manufactured to address environmental problems, reduce dependence on fossil fuels, and nullify climate change. Their production aligns with sustainability objectives by encouraging cleaner transportation options, promoting energy efficiency, and contributing to a transition towards eco-friendly mobility in an answer to global environmental challenges. In Jordan, similar to any international market, car dealers and traders import electric cars. However, the prevailing perceptions and attitudes of Jordanian consumers need strong consideration. Nevertheless, there is still uncertainty and a need for more trust in electric vehicles among Jordanian consumers. Therefore, this research aims to ascertain whether electric cars have a lasting positive perception among Jordanians through an inductive research approach. Employing thematic qualitative analysis, this research is supported by the diffusion of innovation theory. Notably, the research findings provided robust insights, further leading to reinforcing the idea about the pervasive attitudes of Jordanian consumers. Thus, this research concludes that there still needs to be more confidence regarding electric vehicles among most consumers in Jordan. Furthermore, this research offers practical and theoretical contributions to Jordan’s policymakers and electric vehicle companies.

Could the next generation of bike-sharing with autonomous bikes be financially sustainable?

The field of transportation has undergone changes due to the advancements in technology and the pressing need for mobility solutions. As cities worldwide struggle with the challenges posed by population growth and environmental sustainability, it becomes imperative to introduce adaptive transportation options. The increasing traffic congestion in areas and concerns regarding air quality and carbon emissions emphasize the importance of finding sustainable solutions. In this regard we present the "On demand shared use bike sharing system (OSABS)" as an eco-friendly on-demand mobility alternative that has the potential to revolutionize transportation from its core. Self-driving bikes provide a solution by reducing traffic congestion and promoting sustainable modes of transport. Customers can easily reserve a bike through their smartphones and it comes directly to their location within the given time. The user will ride it manually and release it after usage. The bike then drives autonomously to the next destination. This service allows an environment-friendly door-to-door mobility solution.This scientific paper focuses on examining the viability of autonomous cargo bike-sharing as a solution for urban transportation. A simulation model has been built to reproduce the OSABS operation using a case study for the city of Magdeburg. Through a set of experiments with different demand scenarios, we analysed and discussed the profitability and feasibility of this new service. These findings would be valuable, in the conversation about the future of transportation through providing important insights into how autonomous bike-sharing systems could be effectively implemented.

Urban Air Mobility for Last-Mile Transportation: A Review

Urban air mobility (UAM) is a revolutionary approach to transportation in densely populated cities. UAM involves using small, highly automated aircraft to transport passengers and goods at lower altitudes within urban and suburban areas, aiming to transform how people and parcels move within these environments. On average, UAM can reduce travel times by 30% to 40% for point-to-point journeys, with even greater reductions of 40% to 50% in major cities in the United States and China, compared to land transport. UAM includes advanced airborne transportation options like electric vertical takeoff and landing (eVTOL) aircraft and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs or drones). These technologies offer the potential to ease traffic congestion, decrease greenhouse gas emissions, and substantially cut travel times in urban areas. Studying the applications of eVTOLs and UAVs in parcel delivery and passenger transportation poses intricate challenges when examined through the lens of operations research (OR). By OR approaches, we mean mathematical programming, models, and solution methods addressing eVTOL- and UAV-aided parcel/people transportation problems. Despite the academic and practical importance, there is no review paper on eVTOL- and UAV-based optimization problems in the UAM sector. The present paper, applying a systematic literature review, develops a classification scheme for these problems, dividing them into routing and scheduling of eVTOLs and UAVs, infrastructure planning, safety and security, and the trade-off between efficiency and sustainability. The OR methodologies and the characteristics of the solution methods proposed for each problem are discussed. Finally, the study gaps and future research directions are presented alongside the concluding remarks.

Energy-efficient Vienna rectifier for electric vehicle battery charging stations

Global DC fast-charging infrastructure is being rapidly developed to accommodate the ever-increasing demand from the electric vehicle market. A major complication in the electric power system's process is the proliferation of ultra-fast charging (UFC) stations, which are known for their enormous power consumption and unpredictable, intermittent performance. By implementing grid-supportive features and ensuring an improved power consumption profile for the grid, installing regional energy storage can solve these challenges. This study presents a control approach for managing the grid-side AC/DC converters of rapid charging stations focused on future-oriented regulation. The paper primarily concentrates on various Vienna rectifier topologies. The technology, characteristics, benefits, and operational aspects of Vienna rectifier topologies are vital to improving the performance, efficiency, and grid integration of electric vehicle charging systems. Fast charging, grid stability, energy economy, and the smooth integration of electric vehicles into the electrical grid are all made possible by Vienna rectifiers. When used in battery energy storage systems (BESS) for electric vehicle charging infrastructure, Vienna rectifiers allow for effective discharge and charging of the batteries. The configurations and assessments of these converters are examined, assessed, and compared based on power output parameters, element count, power factor, THD, and efficiency. The Vienna rectifier has been identified as the best suitable DC fast-charging converter architecture for power levels exceeding 15 kW due to its exceptional efficiency, limited output voltage ripples, high power density, reduced current ripples, and reliable performance. Research on ways to improve electric vehicle charging infrastructure can be spurred by a better grasp of the Vienna rectifier's technological complexities and performance benefits, leading to greener and more efficient transportation options. As a result, the system's power density will eventually rise and elemental stress will decrease.

Differential Pricing Strategies for Airport Shuttles: A Study of Shanghai Based on Customized Bus Ticketing Data

Airport shuttle buses, as a specialized form of bus service, serve as an economical, efficient, and sustainable transportation option for air travelers. In contrast to conventional bus services, airport shuttle bus operations exhibit more pronounced market-oriented characteristics, striving to balance extensive public transport coverage with the optimization of corporate profitability. Although these services outperform regular bus transit in terms of efficiency, they incur higher operational costs. However, existing studies on enhancing profitability and optimizing resource allocation for airport shuttle buses are inadequate. This study proposes a differential pricing strategy based on historical ticketing data. Initially, we analyze the characteristics of orders, users, and reservations within the context of customized bus operations. Leveraging the differences among various groups, we employ clustering techniques to classify seat grades and segment users. Based on the clustering outcomes, we determine distinct price elasticity values for each segment. As the strategies are developed based on seat grades, booking time, and user travel patterns, the numerical experiments indicate that the proposed differentiated pricing strategy can increase the revenue of customized public transport services by at least 41%. This strategy not only enhances the efficiency of resource allocation and service accessibility but also makes the service more financially sustainable.

Rehabilitation after musculoskeletal injury: an overview of systems in the United States and Canada.

As North America is largely industrialized with a variety of available private transportation options, trauma is a common occurrence, resulting in significant burdens of disability and costs to the health care system. To meet increasing trauma care needs, there is a robust organization of trauma and rehabilitation systems, particularly within the United States and Canada. The American and Canadian health care systems share multiple similarities, including well-equipped Level I trauma centers, specialized inpatient rehabilitation units for polytrauma patients, and thorough evaluations for recovery and post-discharge placement. However, they also have several key differences. In Canada, the criteria for admission to inpatient rehabilitation vary by location, and inpatient rehabilitation is universally accessible, whereas outpatient rehabilitation services are generally not covered by insurance. In the United States, these admission criteria for post-acute inpatient rehabilitation are standardized, and both inpatient and outpatient services are covered by private and government-funded insurance with varying durations. Overall, both health care systems face challenges in post-acute rehabilitation, including benefit limitations and limited provider access in rural areas, and must continue to evolve to meet the rehabilitation needs of injured patients as they reintegrate into their communities.

Affordable transportation access to treatment for opioid use disorder

Transportation is a key barrier for accessing healthcare services. This is particularly concerning for the millions suffering from opioid use disorder (OUD) since treatment for OUD can require in-person visits daily or a few times a week. To better understand how public transit influences access to treatment for OUD, we observe distances among opioid treatment programs (OTPs), buprenorphine providers, and public transit stops in the U.S. We also investigate the possible role of micromoblity, specifically bikesharing and e-scooters, in filling these transportation gaps. Results show that in urban counties, 48–91% of buprenorphine providers and OTPs are within possible walking distance (i.e., 0.4–1.4 km) of public transit stops, suggesting a high degree of heterogeneity in public transit access even among urban counties. In rural counties, only 5–40% of buprenorphine providers and OTPs are within possible walking distance of public transit stops. Given that many micromobility programs are in urban areas, they could complement public transit in urban counties where public transit runs less frequently, but not in rural counties. We also find that, on average, the odds an OTP or a buprenorphine provider is within walking distance of a public transit stop decreases outside the large central metro counties, as well as in counties that have a greater percentage of people with lower educational attainment. Affordable transportation options will continue to limit treatment options for people suffering from OUD, especially outside major metropolitan areas, unless public transit or other transportation innovations are expanded or telemedicine becomes more accessible.