Transportation Funding Research Articles

Cities, transport and agglomeration: Addressing the urban mobility challenges in India

AbstractCities are the drivers of economic growth and structural transformation in developing countries. Transport makes or mars a city. It connects people to opportunity and business to prosperity. Urban transport acts as a catalyst of growth through direct, indirect and induced effects, including those linked to agglomeration and networking externalities. Yet policy makers and planners in developing countries like India continue to neglect the economics of urban public transport. Hardly has there been any attempt to study relationships between city externalities, spatial planning, public transport infrastructure, economic growth and value capture financing. This paper delves into these aspects and presents lessons from theory for the strategies of development and financing of urban public transport in India. It is focused on the implications of urban externalities for transit‐oriented development, transport land use integration, strategic densification of growth nodes and public transport financing based on a value creation, capture and recycling paradigm.

‘I’m here to save my life’: a qualitative study of experiences navigating a cryotherapy referral system for human papillomavirus-positive women in western Kenya

BackgroundWe sought to understand the beliefs, social norms and logistical factors that affect human papillomavirus (HPV)-positive women’s uptake of cryotherapy treatment as part of a two-part cervical cancer screening strategy...

Explanatory Factors for Public Transportation Financing Needs in Spain

Public transport financing in Spain has generated interest due to the absence of a governing regulatory framework. There is a need for rules that help allocate public subsidies to guarantee the system’s financial sustainability. Without explicit regulation, the current system for assigning and distributing public funding among Spanish cities has become unbalanced. Our goal is to identify the principal factors that explain why urban transport services in different cities require varying levels of public financing. Our results show that variables such as the “passengers,” “number of vehicles,” “number of employees,” “autonomous community deficit”, and “population density” are influencing factors for the needs of public subsidies.

Vehicles leasing operations in Lagos state, Nigeria

Abstract Vehicle is an important element of transport; and its financing especially in road transport comes in 3 ways; outright purchase, hire purchase and lease. Of all these three methods of road transport financing, leasing has attracted little attention in Nigeria transport research. This study was carried out to examine the development, types and form, operating characteristics and problems of vehicle lease in Lagos State, Nigeria. Aggregate number of vehicle leasing companies in Nigeria from inception to 2018 was obtained from corporate affairs commission (CAC). Four prominent vehicle leasing companies: Cashlink Leasing Plc (CLP), NIKKY Taurus Ltd (NTL), C & I Leasing (CIL) and SAMTL Leasing Ltd (SLL) were purposively selected for the operating characteristics and challenges of the leasing companies. 298 structured questionnaires were administered to the staffs of the selected companies seeking the types and forms of lease and challenges encountered in the course of operation using stratified and simple random samplings techniques. Vehicle leasing started in Nigeria from 1986 with the likes of pine hill leasing, Cashlink leasing, VT leasing in Lagos. Within 1986 and 2018, it has spread to 23 different urban cities and the number has increased to 297 companies in 2018. Operating and finance leases exist in the industry with majority of 91.6% of the companies practice operating lease. The staff strength and fleet size level of the leasing companies varies overtime but positively significant to their operations. However, poor pricing of lease service, inadequate finance of vehicle, default in payment of rental charges and high cost of maintenance minimize leasing service efficiency and effectiveness. It is recommended that government should provide subvention for vehicles acquisition, face-off of racketing vehicles from cites and legislate policy to regulate operational activities (entry and exit) of the companies.

Evaluating Fuel Tax Revenue Impacts of Electric Vehicle Adoption in Virginia Counties: Application of a Bivariate Linear Mixed Count Model

Increasing electric vehicle (EV) shares and fuel economy pose challenges to a fuel tax-based transportation funding scheme. This paper evaluates such fuel tax revenue impacts using Virginia as a case study. First, a bivariate count model is developed using vehicle registration data in 132 counties from 2012 to 2016. Model results indicate strong correlation between presence of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) on a county basis. Counties with higher percent of males are associated with higher BEV (but not PHEV) counts. In contrast, higher average commute time is predicted to increase the number of PHEVs in each county, but not BEVs. Greater population density, population over 65, population with graduate degrees, and household size are found to increase PHEV and BEV counts, whereas more households with children is associated with fewer EVs. The analysis forecasts 0.6–10% statewide EV adoption by 2025, with an adoption rate of 2.4% in the most likely scenario. Nine scenarios, combining different predictions of EV adoption and fuel economy improvement, project 2025 statewide fuel tax revenue to decrease by 5–19%, relative to 2016 receipts. Furthermore, model results suggest that, on average, a light-duty vehicle in a rural area will pay 28% more in fuel taxes than its urban counterpart by 2025. The framework proposed here provides a reference for other regions to conduct similar analysis using public agency data in the vehicle electrification era.

The Effectiveness of State False Claims Acts in Protecting State Transportation Funding

For more than 150 years, the Federal False Claims Act (“FCA”) has served to prevent false claims for federal government funds. In recent years, a number of state legislatures have enacted state false claims acts (“State FCAs”) modeled after the Federal FCA, to prevent false claims for state government funds. This paper provides practical legal guidance for state transportation officials as well as state attorneys general regarding the use of false claims acts to protect public funds for transportation and highway contracting, and to recover funds paid to false claimants by transportation agencies such as state departments of transportation (“State DOTs”). Because State DOTs often contract for work using federal grant funds, it is not always a straightforward matter to determine whether a false claim on a State DOT project is a violation of the Federal FCA, a State FCA, or both. A series of appellate decisions in the mid-2000s called into question whether the Federal FCA was applicable to federal transportation funds in the hands of State DOTs. If the Federal FCA did not apply to federally funded State DOT projects, then there could have been substantially less protection against false claims made to State DOTs in states without a State FCA. Although some State FCAs existed dating back to 1987, the number of State FCAs increased significantly after Congress acted in 2006 to encourage state legislatures to enact State FCAs. In 2009, Congress amended the Federal FCA to clarify that the Federal FCA is applicable to federal transportation funds in the hands of State DOTs or other federal grant recipients. As a result, there are now often at least two statutes (the Federal FCA and a State FCA or local government false claims ordinance) that can be used to protect or recover transportation funds that are the object of a false claim. This paper discusses the considerations involved in using one or more FCAs to protect or recover State DOT funds.

Practice ecology of sustainable travel: The importance of institutional policy-making processes beyond the traveller

Changing mobility behaviour towards activities and actions that have a less detrimental impact on the environment, public health and society is an objective of transport policy jurisdictions globally. In line with a burgeoning body of research examining behaviour and social change, this paper explores the governmental systems that influence mobility behaviours through a social practice lens. This paper blends two social practice theoretical models, the ‘3-Elements Model’ and ‘Systems of Provision’, as a means of understanding the delivery of the Local Sustainable Transport Fund (LSTF), a central government grant scheme for English local authorities. We examine how the meanings, materials and competences within the practices of bid writing by local authorities and scheme selection by government influenced the distribution of funding to local authorities. The research starts from the principle that, where funding is provided by central government, in the case of this research that of the UK, an opportunity is created for mobility practices to change. The significance of funding is not easily theorised by the 3-Elements model but is more helpfully explained when that model is blended with the wider Systems of Provision model to create a model of practice ecology. Our theorisation allows for a rigorous exploration of the ‘practice scaffolding’ which shapes how people travel. Policymakers are recommended to consider a practice ecology approach when developing mobility management schemes to tackle air quality, climate change and obesity issues more effectively.

Relating Pavement Condition Index and Present Serviceability Rating for Asphalt-Surfaced Pavements

In response to the two latest transportation funding authorization bills, the Moving Ahead for Progress in the 21st Century Act and the Fixing America’s Surface Transportation Act, rules that require the reporting of specific pavement condition measures have been developed and encoded into federal regulation. Pavement performance rules published to the federal register require the reporting of the International Roughness Index (IRI), percent cracking, rutting (for asphalt-surfaced pavements) and faulting (for jointed concrete pavements). Allowing that the measurement of the IRI on pavements with a speed limit below 40 mph is not expected to provide a reliable estimation of ride quality, the rules permit the reporting of the present serviceability rating (PSR) on these routes. However, many agencies do not measure the PSR or collect the slope variance data required to estimate the PSR. In light of not having the data required to directly estimate the PSR, this paper presents a model to estimate the PSR using data collected during a Pavement Condition Index (PCI) survey. Furthermore, this paper explores the reasons why pavements can have a good PCI and poor PSR and vice versa. The model presented in this paper provides a reasonable estimate of the PSR, though it is noted that agencies who wish to report PSR should conduct an updated assessment of rider satisfaction to develop a stronger correlation of PSR and PCI.

An assessment of Voluntary Travel Behaviour Change delivery in England as an alternative to highway construction

There is a growing body of international evidence available that shows highway construction fails to solve issues of congestion and improvements to the local economy. There is also evidence that due to changes of land use and expectations of being able to travel from the land opened for development that traffic is induced to the highway network. Alternative methods of managing travel demand; such has Voluntary Travel Behaviour Change (VTBC) initiatives have been delivered internationally. A significant VTBC scheme, called the Local Sustainable Transport Fund (LSTF), was delivered in the United Kingdom between 2011 and 2015. This paper focuses on the people who delivered these initiatives, rather than the individuals required to change their behaviour. This is to understand how transport planners’ views influence the type of VTBC initiatives that were delivered. The study included a survey of 69 bid managers for LSTF projects and interviews with 17 council officers. The survey found that 80% transport planning officers understood the concept of induced traffic compared to just 10% of the wider population. It was also evident that the sample group was a homogenous group, where their views on issues such as climate change, congestion and the factors that influence how we travel were remarkably similar. The findings show that despite the evidence that highway construction does not provide a solution to travel demand, the decisions about which schemes are funded remain with non-transport experts, such as government ministers and local politicians, and this invariably leads to highway ‘solutions’ being chosen which limit the potential success of any VTBC initiative to create long-term change to travel behaviour.

Determinants of the Price of Housing in the Province of Alicante (Spain): Analysis Using Quantile Regression

After almost a decade of crisis, the housing market in Spain shows significant signs of recovery, with increases in both the average price and the number of sales transactions. Housing is the main asset for the majority of households, and it also has the most resources devoted to it, thus, when it comes to buying a residence, people do not only look at the asset’s intrinsic characteristics, but also consider other particularities such as the neighbourhood, accessibility to services, availability of public transport or adequate funding. The study aimed to analyse and quantify the relationship that exists between the asking price of second-hand housing on the market in Alicante and the attributes that characterise them. This was done using a multivariate analysis to estimate a hedonic pricing model by ordinary least squares and a quantile regression to analyse the impact of the characteristics in different price ranges. The results show the segmentation of the prices in the Alicante market, with higher prices in the northern coastal area over the southern and inland comarcas.

“A little bit happy”: How performance metrics shortchange pedestrian infrastructure funding

After decades of inattention to the issue, cities and regions increasingly recognize the role of pedestrian infrastructure to improve safety, public health, air quality, accessibility, travel choices, and economic development. But extraordinary gaps exist between pedestrian infrastructure needs and what is funded and built. To understand why this gap persists, even as attention to pedestrian issues grows, we conducted 50 interviews about pedestrian funding with transportation professionals from different levels of government in three regions that have prioritized active transportation: Chicago, Illinois; Denver, Colorado; and Portland, Oregon. We analyzed interviews along with each region's transportation plans, fiscally constrained budgets, and other policy and planning documents. Our analysis revealed three systemic barriers at the regional level that perpetuate the underfunding of pedestrian infrastructure: (1) overall transportation funding shortages made worse by the substantial and growing burden of operating and maintaining aging regional mobility systems; (2) performance and evaluation metrics used in funding decisions are biased toward regional mobility rather than accessibility; and (3) the relatively small scale of individual pedestrian projects often keeps them from being considered regionally significant or scoring highly on metrics related to regional impact. In addition to identifying the need for additional funding sources, the regions we studied used other strategies to address these challenges that may offer lessons for other regions. These include: collecting new data and establishing performance measures that better capture the benefits of active travel modes and their unique contributions to broad policy goals; coordinating across a region to bundle pedestrian projects into larger funding packages that can meet regional significance criteria; and creating regional pedestrian plans that demonstrate how smaller pedestrian projects contribute to regional goals.

‘Pray for transit’: Seeking transportation justice in metropolitan Atlanta

On 4 November 2014, voters in Clayton County, Georgia, approved a referendum to join the Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority (MARTA), Atlanta’s regional transit agency. The historic vote was won by a margin not often seen in US electoral politics – 73% in favour with only 27% opposed. The vote was significant because it resulted from the sustained effort of Clayton County residents, non-profit advocacy organisations and elected officials to replace a public transit service that had been completely eliminated in early 2010. After opting not to join MARTA in 1971, Clayton County became increasingly Black and low-income as the economic centre of Atlanta shifted northwards. This demographic transition made public transit a necessity, and a bus service began in the county in 2001 in the wake of an air quality conformity lapse that jeopardised the region’s transportation funding. The rebirth of transit in 2014 and the success of the advocacy effort extends extant notions of urban regimes and governance in Atlanta and provides a unique example of a transportation equity win not forced by a legal challenge. Using primary and secondary source materials, this article illuminates precisely what made the Clayton County effort a success and looks to the future of public transit in the metropolitan region. While the precise conditions leading to MARTA’s expansion are not likely to be replicated elsewhere, the work highlights the potential for coalitions composed of elected officials and non-profit organisations supported by philanthropic capital to make broad and lasting changes to regional transportation systems.

Assessing air transport socio-economic footprint

Abstract Air transportation and economic development interact with each other as aviation makes significant direct and indirect contributions to the economy and increases the cycle of economic activity. Conventional wisdom is to provide an effective tool to provide quantitative estimations on the socioeconomic effects of air transport. This paper focuses on the estimation of the air transport footprint in terms of socioeconomic impacts in national economy. The socioeconomic effects assessment concept and methodology are given, providing an essential tool for planners, economists, analysts and researchers. The methodology concept and modelling approach provide essential benefits to support decisions on air transport infrastructures investments prioritization, fund allocation and sustainable strategic planning. The goal is to provide an essential decision support tool for strategic decisions about planning new air transport infrastructure, when resources are limited, in order to maximize the potential of social and economic development. The numerical application is Greece, which is a very attractive summer holiday tourist destination in southeast Mediterranean, suffering long time from economic stress. The results indicate that air transport is essential for Greece and thorough the last year’s economic downturn is resulting higher dependence to aviation mainly because the tourism and air transport linkage and the high spill-over effect of both industries to national economic model.

Why the Dot's Role in Funding and Regulating Transportation Should Be Reduced

We analyze the role of the US Department of Transportation (DOT) in regulating transportation safety and funding surface transportation infrastructure. These two aspects of DOT policy are important in light of recent trends and problems with our transportation system. Government officials and transportation experts have expressed growing concern about deteriorating surface transportation infrastructure. Transportation safety regulation, which continues to increase, disproportionately burdens low-income Americans and small businesses. This paper synthesizes and updates the literature from past debates about the costs and incentive effects of safety regulation. A counterfactual analysis using historical evidence and economic research on safety regulation indicates that without regulation, the private sector would provide many safety features in response to market incentives. Economic research also shows that when the DOT mandates safety features, people must then spend less on other things they value more. Similarly, we demonstrate, based on economic theory and evidence, that existing policies for funding transportation infrastructure contribute to investment decisions that do not accurately reflect the traveling public's preferences. Evidence from other studies suggests that these policies also create excess demand for highway space in many cities and excess supply of mass transit service. To promote a more efficient and equitable transportation system, the role of the DOT in funding surface transportation should be reduced and the role of state and local governments and private firms should be increased. The DOT should also reduce its role in regulating transportation safety so that travelers and shippers have more freedom to choose the level of safety they desire.

Controlled before-after intervention study of suburb-wide street changes to increase walking and cycling: Te Ara Mua-Future Streets study design

BackgroundAchieving a shift from car use to walking, cycling and public transport in cities is a crucial part of healthier, more environmentally sustainable human habitats. Creating supportive active travel environments is an important precursor to this shift. The longevity of urban infrastructure necessitates retrofitting existing suburban neighbourhoods. Previous studies of the effects of street changes have generally relied on natural experiments, have included few outcomes, and have seldom attempted to understand the equity impacts of such interventions.MethodsIn this paper we describe the design of Te Ara Mua – Future Streets, a mixed-methods, controlled before-after intervention study to assess the effect of retrofitting street changes at the suburb scale on multiple health, social and environmental outcomes. The study has a particular focus on identifying factors that improve walking and cycling to local destinations in low-income neighbourhoods and on reducing social and health inequities experienced by Māori (Indigenous New Zealanders) and Pacific people. Qualitative system dynamics modelling was used to develop a causal theory for the relationships between active travel, and walking and cycling infrastructure. On this basis we selected outcomes of interest. Together with the transport funder, we triangulated best evidence from the literature, transport policy makers, urban design professionals and community knowledge to develop interventions that were contextually and culturally appropriate. Using a combination of direct observation and random sample face to face surveys, we are measuring outcomes in these domains of wellbeing: road-user behaviour, changes to travel mode for short trips, physical activity, air quality, road traffic injuries, greenhouse gas emissions, and perceptions of neighbourhood social connection, safety, and walking and cycling infrastructure .DiscussionWhile building on previous natural experiments, Te Ara Mua - Future Streets is unique in testing an intervention designed by the research team, community and transport investors together; including a wide range of objective outcome measures; and having an equity focus. When undertaking integrated intervention studies of this kind, a careful balance is needed between epidemiological imperatives, the constraints of transport funding and implementation and community priorities, while retaining the ability to contribute new evidence for healthy, equitable transport policy.The study was retrospectively registered as a clinical trial on 21 June 2018 in the ISCRTN registry: ISRCTN89845334 http://www.isrctn.com/ISRCTN89845334

Transformation of urban public transport financing and its effect on operators’ efficiency: evidence from the Czech Republic

The purpose of this study is to analyze changes in the efficiency of urban public transport in the Czech Republic. Network data envelopment analysis and cluster analysis were applied to data from 19 urban public transport systems during 2004–2016. The series structure of the network was considered, including production and consumption stages with three external inputs (employees, rolling stock, and energy), one final output (passengers), and two intermediate products (vehicle-kilometres and seat-kilometres). The relationship between changes in efficiency and the method of financing for the operation of transport services was explored through standard statistical methods. One of the main findings was that the efficiency of smaller transport systems with complicated access to sources of funding were systematically less efficient, particularly in the consumption stage. These trends were even more significant after the reorganization of urban public transport funding in 2010.

FORMATION PECULIARITIES OF FINANCIAL RESOURCES OF PJSC «UKRAINIAN RAILWAY»

Purpose. The need for technological modernization of the railway industry in Ukraine, creation of favorable conditions for investment and introduction of innovations in the industry require significant financial resources. The purpose of the article is investigation of possible sources of attracting financial resources necessary for development of Ukrainian railway transport, in particular, during further organizational arrangements and procedures for the railway industry corporatization to search for ways to optimize them. Methodology. During research the methods of comparison, scientific search, analysis and synthesis were used to study the existing sources of financing for corporations abroad and at Ukrainian enterprises. Findings. Analysis of the existing and search for more efficient sources of financial resources necessary for financing Ukrainian railway transport modernization in the process of the railway industry corporatization is carried out. The growth of the financial results share in the amount of internal own resources is achieved by taking measures to increase profits. A significant part of the economic activities financing can be provided by issuing corporate bonds with the presence of positive effect of the financial leverage. Accounting of the financial leverage effect is an efficient tool for optimizing the structure of the share capital and determining the expediency of loan resources. In the process of corporatization, PJSC «Ukrzaliznytsia» should create an efficient system of financial resources that fully takes into account the specifics of its activities, motivates to increase labor productivity with the ultimate purpose of ensuring the external competitiveness of the Ukrainian railway industry. Originality. Based on the study of scientific and methodological sources, as well as the analysis of sources for financing the economic activities of railway transport, the ways of their optimization are proposed. Practical value. Introduction of the proposed approaches will make it possible to justify the economic feasibility and proportionality of internal and external sources of the railway transport financing under the conditions of corporatization.

Political Incentives and Transportation Funding

This paper examines politicians' incentives when they decide on the level and allocation of government transportation infrastructure spending. I conclude that transportation infrastructure spending is highly inefficient and often driven by political rather than economic forces. Research shows that transportation project costs are significantly underestimated and traffic flows tend to be overestimated. These errors are large and are not random, suggesting that they are deliberate in order to get projects started, resulting in an inefficient use of funds. Project benefits are concentrated in a state or district, whereas tax costs are spread out nationwide. Legislators embrace inefficient transportation projects because district or state voters do not pay the full cost, and projects proceed even when total costs exceed total benefits. Possible reforms include comparing potential project benefits and costs with those of similar completed projects to assess the accuracy of predicted costs and demand. Reducing the federal government's role in highway financing would improve outcomes.

2259 - Funding Transportation for Prosperity Sustainability & Equity

Studies have shown that urban sprawl creates auto-dependency, contributes to crash deaths and injuries, sedentary lifestyles and increases per-capita energy consumption and associated air pollution. Sprawl also increases impervious surfaces (roofs, streets, parking lots, driveways, etc.) which exacerbate stormwater runoff and water pollution. Some extol compact development (“smart growth”) as the antidote. But, if smart growth is so “smart,” how come there's so much “dumb growth” – and what can be done about it? Part of the answer lies in the economics of infrastructure. Infrastructure is created to facilitate development. Yet, if it is well-designed and well-executed, resulting increases in nearby land prices can chase development away to cheaper but more remote sites. When infrastructure is extended to these remote sites, the cycle begins again, with development being chased even farther away. Rising land prices also thwart community improvement. Perhaps there's a distressed community that would benefit from better roads or transit. If the improvements are successful, land prices and rents rise. Intended beneficiaries may be displaced. Tax dollars, spent to help the poor, end up enriching affluent landowners instead. The ability of private landowners to appropriate publicly-created land values is the fuel behind land speculation – a parasitic activity that inflates land prices and contributes to these perverse outcomes. This presentation will demonstrate that returning publicly-created land values to the public and recycling them for public purposes reduces land prices. Where this has been tried, infrastructure becomes financially self-sustaining (at least to a greater degree than typical). Additionally, this approach promotes compact infill development, enhancing opportunities for walking, biking, transit and other forms of active transportation. Funding infrastructure from publicly-created land values facilitates reducing taxes on privately-created building values. This tax shift makes both buildings and land more affordable for residents and businesses. The end result is more jobs in construction and related fields, including energy conservation retrofits to existing buildings. This often overlooked and/or misunderstood source of transportation funding has been used successfully in Washington, DC during the 1800s, regarding the first-time paving of streets and the funding of the Connecticut Avenue Streetcar. Other examples of successful implementation include Pittsburgh, Harrisburg and San Francisco after the earthquake of 1906. Hong Kong uses this approach to make its public transit system economically viable. The presentation will briefly discuss the economics of land value creation and recycling, but emphasize real-world success stories whereby land value recycling provides more equitable, resilient, healthy and sustainable development.

Technology Management of Capital Assets and Risks in the Service Sharing Economy: Cases of Uberization of Crowdfunding and Transportation in Mexico

Firms such as AirBnB, Uber, Blablacar have platforms for connecting owners of underused assets with clients through, the internet, thus allowing people to rent out their spare rooms, or book relay rides by acting as matchmakers, allocating resources where they are needed and charging a percentage of the cost in return. This phenomenon could be regarded from the point of view of: 1) Internet technology evolution from a network of computers to a network of people devoted to sharing their knowledge and user experience, coming further, as the Internet of Things (IoT), and 2) as part of the increasing involvement of he user (consumer/client) in production and innovation processes. These approaches allow us to analyze service-user Platform firms according to the different kinds of specific assets distribution and risks. The new organization is based on internet platform tools which integrate information, machinery, energy, and science, and costumer collaboration. We conclude that there are large profits for those firms based on platforms, as there are not yet any counterbalances through competition, posing the question about the needed or not of technology management regulation during this phase of service sharing economy. A selection of 17 service platform firms in Mexico involved in transportation and crowd funding are described on the basis of their business model, the market and the distribution of assets and income.