Transport Fares Research Articles

The Making(s) of an Alternative Urban Policy: What Happens When Free Fares Come to Town?

AbstractWhile many urban policies and practices claim to offer an “alternative” to the “mainstream” of urban entrepreneurialism, they remain under‐theorised and prone to alignment with entrepreneurial agendas. In this paper I examine fare‐free public transport (FFPT) as a salient example of an alternative urban policy. Looking at Aubagne (France) and Tallinn (Estonia), I explore what happens when an alternative policy “comes to town”. I detect how FFPT enters local urban regimes, and study the (non‐)participation of public transport passengers and workers in the decision‐making process about whether and how to abolish public transport fares. My analysis reveals that albeit alternative policies such as FFPT seem to oppose entrepreneurialism, they may hinge on urban regimes that span across institutions, leave the local configurations of power unchallenged, and strenghten local elites. The adaptability of alternatives to diverse political and intellectual positions explains their resilience. Consequently, their radical character cannot be taken for granted and remains an object of political struggle.

Development of Public Transport Fare Payment Systems in the Republic of Belarus

The Republic of Belarus uses traditional and modern systems of fare payment for public passenger transport. In the traditional system, paper tickets are used as proof of payment; such a system is common in all settlements of the country. Electronic tickets generated in mobile applications of various electronic systems, on physical media – contactless smart cards, as well as records of relevant transactions from bank card accounts are used in modern fare systems to confirm payment for a transport service. Both single trips and multiple travel tickets can be recorded in the form of an electronic ticket or an electronic entry on the contactless smart cards. The paper proposes measures aimed at increasing the level of payback of public passenger transport, analyzes the volume of passenger traffic for 2016–2020, the decisions of local authorities in force in the cities of Belarus that establish regulatory and cost indicators for fares in public passenger transport. The comparison of modern fare payment systems implemented in cities is carried out. TapXphone and T-PAY systems are recommended for distribution on public passenger transport in Belarusian cities on the basis of the comparison of the positive аnd negative aspects of the functioning of electronic fare collection systems from the position of a passenger and a carrier.

Do spatial climate messages increase pro-environmental engagement? Evidence from a survey experiment on public transport

ABSTRACT Using a survey experiment among a special sample composed of art house cinema visitors, we investigate whether spatial climate messages increase subjects' willingness to pay for an inclusion of public transport fares in cinema tickets as well as their willingness to use public transport in case such a combined ticket is introduced. Based on previous findings, we expect emphasizing the positive impact of public transport usage on the local level to have a greater effect on subjects' preferences for public transport than a message that highlights the global consequences. Contrary to these expectations, our results show that the global treatment increases subjects' willingness to pay compared to the local treatment and the baseline. Both treatments increase subjects' willingness to use public transport. Conducting a sub-sample analysis, we find that also the local message increases the willingness to pay for a combined ticket among respondents who lack a financial interest as they already own a season ticket for public transport.

Integration Of Mass Public Transport Fare In The Jakarta Area

This study specifically discusses the concept of integrating mass public transport fares in Jakarta. Based on the identification of problems and also based on several studies of mass transportation in various cities in the world, the integration of fares can increase the number of mass public transportation ridership. This causes a change in the movement pattern of mass public transport users. An interim analysis has been carried out on a simple public transport network with the number of movements in the origin and destination matrix between stations/stops was 19,611 passengers/hour and variations in the amount of fare between IDR 2,500,-/passenger up to IDR 7,500,-/passenger (Existing average fare is IDR 4,188,-/passenger). In the optimization process, an existing operator’s revenue is an objective function. The optimization process for determining mass public transport fares is carried out recursively because it is influenced by changes in the integrated fare amount to the number of mass public transport users. The results of the optimization process show that the integrated fare of IDR 3,850/passenger (9% lowest than the average existing fare) that increasing public transport users by 3% compared to the number of passengers in the existing condition for 1 operating hour.

IMPROVING THE LIST OF TARIFF PROPOSALS FOR PAYING FOR PUBLIC TRANSPORT IN URBAN AND SUBURBAN TRAFFIC OF THE REPUBLIC OF BELARUS BASED ON THE EXPERIENCE OF LARGE CITIES IN EUROPE AND RUSSIA

The article describes the general approaches to the formation of tariff proposals for fare in the cities of Belarus. The current tariff proposals for fare in the following cities were studied: Warsaw (Poland), Vilnius (Lithuania), Riga (Latvia), Berlin (Germany), Moscow and St. Petersburg (Russia). A list of tariffs for regular passenger traffic in the listed cities is given. As a result of the study, recommendations for improving tariff proposals for public transport fare in urban and suburban traffic in the Republic of Belarus were proposed. The practical significance of the study lies in the possible implementation by the Ministry of Antimonopoly Regulation and Trade of the Republic of Belarus, together with the city executive committees, of the proposed approaches to the formation of fares.

Исследование влияния стоимости проезда на транспортный спрос методом математического моделирования

Purpose: To analyze the methods of mathematical modeling applied in Russian practice in transport and urban planning. To propose methods and algorithms for accounting for public transport fares in the frames of a transport demand and a passenger traffic density model. To test model of public transport system, accounting for a fare on the example of St. Petersburg agglomeration. Methods: Mathematical modeling, processing data large amounts processing, geoinformation analysis. Results: The study of the impact of a fare on a transport demand and a passenger traffic density as a part of complex task being solved on the basis of transport and urban planning modeling on the example of the transport system of St. Petersburg agglomeration has been pursued. Methodology for calculating the matrices of interdistrict correspondences and for passenger flow formation on a transport network given a fare has been developed. It has been revealed that in addition to time limitations, there are also cost ones in service system feasibility. It’s been established that accounting for a fare can be pursued when calculating as correspondence matrices on the basis of fare impact on demand amount as well as passenger flows on the basis of fare impact on a route choice. Practical importance: The developed modeling method can be the basis to study the dependence of influence of rate various types on passenger flow distribution, time and speed parameters. Being proposed model can be used at the development of documentation on territorial and transport planning, of concepts for improvement of rate policy on a public transport.

Socio-economic Impact of Rural Road Infrastructure by African Development Bank Community Based Agriculture and Rural Development Project in Selected States of Nigeria

The study was carried out to assess the socio-economic impact of rural road infrastructure provided by the African Development Bank Community Based Agriculture and Rural Development Project (AfDB-CBARDP) in the States of Adamawa, Bauchi, Gombe, Kaduna and Kwara. Multi-stage sampling procedure was used to select samples for the study. A sample of 80 respondents were used for the study. The data was analyzed using descriptive statistics. The results revealed that the project had achieved 100% set target on the provision of road construction in each of the participating States. Also, 83.0%, 76.0%, 69.0%, 79.0% and 72.0% of beneficiaries’ communities in Adamawa, Bauchi, Gombe, Kaduna and Kwara States rated the roads quality as very good. The result has shown that in Adamawa, Bauchi, Gombe, Kaduna and Kwara States, there was reduction in time of waiting for motor vehicle by 160, 15, 50, 40 and 10 minutes. There was also a concurrent reduction in the transportation fare (Naira/passenger) to the nearby town by ₦50, ₦200, ₦100, ₦150 and ₦50, respectively. The study equally revealed that average yield per hectare of maize has increased from 1500 kg to 2500 kg before and after the project in Adamawa State. In the same vein, average yield in Bauchi, Gombe, Kaduna and Kwara States before the project were 1100 kg, 1200 kg, 1745.6 kg and 1223 kg, while after the project intervention the maize yields more than double to 2500 kg, 2800 kg, 2309 kg and 2309 kg, respectively. Likewise, average yield of cowpea per hectare has increased considerably across the five States of Adamawa, Bauchi, Gombe, Kaduna and Kwara by 69.8%, 65.9%, 51.6%, 73.8% and 46.5%, respectively. Percentage change in income of the sampled respondents indicates an average increase of 67.6% across the beneficiary States. The study concluded a strong positive NPVs and BCRs greater than 1 in all the States. The BCR in all cases indicates that the road projects were worth investing. The study recommended that a willingness to pay analysis to be undertaken as a way of gauging future tariff plan for the use of the road infrastructure to justify and attract private investment.

Effect of defects on highway quality

This study investigates the causes, effects and remedies to defects on highway as it affects quality along Pipeline road in Kamazo, Chikun Local Government Area of Kaduna State. The methods used in data collection are, GIS used in mapping the congested area, use of questionnaire and oral interview. One hundred (100) copies of questionnaires were administered to drivers and passengers using the road, in which Cross-Tabulation and 5-point Likert Scale was used for the analysis. Common defects observed are: Potholes, cracks, silt deposit on roadway, honey combs, depression, grasses on shoulders, scouring, fade markings, road signs, vegetation in hydraulic structures, structural failure of hydraulic structures, loss of materials, failed pavement, etc. Common causes of quality defects on highways are: High volume and frequency of heavy duty trucks; roadway as predominant mode of transportation; Lack of maintenance culture; Poor budget allocation for maintenance. Poor funding; defective Design; Poor construction; Defective constructional materials; Poor supervision; Poor drainage system; Defective implementation of QC/QA protocols; Age of road, etc. Common effects of quality defects on highways are: Defective road quality; Inability to forecast travel time; Fuel consumption; Induces stress on road users; Frequent vehicle breakdown on the roadway; High cost of transportation fare indices for inflation; Loss of time on the roads; Accident; Defective distribution of goods and services; Defective security emergency response, etc. Possible remedies to these defects are: provision of adequate funding to maintenance agencies; collate data from monitoring and evaluation; schedule and plan for maintenance; diversify travel modes; improve on QA/QC required for roadwork; provide coordinated and computerized weigh bridge and regular collection of axle loads data; tax vehicles according to axle load beyond certain boundaries to generate fund required to maintain roads; road markings and furniture to be in place; provision of lightings; quality supervision; use of quality materials to required standard & specifications; adopt build-operate-transfer (road retainer ship).

Fungsi Pengawasan Dinas Perhubungan dalam Penertiban Tarif Angkutan di Provinsi Bali

Public transportation is one part of the transportation sector that is widely used by the Balinese people. An important component in the operation of public transportation that must be considered is the determination of tariffs. The purpose of the study was to analyze the mechanism for controlling public transport fares by the Bali Provincial Transportation Service and to examine the obstacles during the implementation of controlling public transport fares in the Province of Bali. The research method in this paper uses empirical research using a sociological approach and a conceptual approach. The results show that the Government has limited authority in setting tariffs. The authority for public transportation rates for people in Bali Province includes online transportation, conventional taxis, and AKDP transportation. As a result of the pandemic, most entrepreneurs in the transportation sector have lost, this is a factor in the existence of fraud in the imposition of tariffs. In addition, the lack of PPNS personnel and the unavailability of special tools to read barcodes are also obstacles. The Department of Transportation is advised to review comprehensive tariff rules, as well as add PPNS members, and immediately budget for the availability of sophisticated equipment in order to overcome the obstacles that occur.

Data Intelligence in Public Transportation: Sustainable and Equitable Solutions to Urban Modals in Strategic Digital City Subproject

Transport infrastructure investments must be linked to the public transport demand strategically. User behavior and decision-making process bring several possible alternative transportation options due to a series of factors that define it. Municipalities must manage these factors to promote equal and sustainable transport solutions through urban infrastructure, public transport competitiveness, and attractiveness, and fossil fuels use and pricing policy. The research objective is to determine these factors to monitor and use them for citizens’ benefit by means of analytical tools and methods to gain a superior knowledge of reality with a focus on improving investments and services in an agile and efficient manner. Methodologically, the number of passengers of main Curitiba’s (Brazil) bus rapid transit (BRT) lines is operated in two linear regression models combined with the number of private vehicles, public transport fare, and fuel price for the period between January/2010 and December/2019. Research analysis indicates direct causal relationships between the studied factors and that the necessary data for decision-making is available in the government information systems. In conclusion, urban management and strategic digital city project can be more balanced and assertive in transport infrastructure investments and citizen services provision.

Pregnant adolescents and nurses perspectives on accessibility and utilization of maternal and child health information in Ohangwena Region, Namibia

BackgroundAdolescent reproductive health is still a challenge in Low and Middle Income Come Countries (LMICs). However, the reasons for the inability of most pregnant adolescent girls to access and utilize maternal and child health information (MCHI) are not well-documented. This is despite the policy guidelines promoting the provision of this necessary information to pregnant adolescents in order to prepare them for delivery. This provision is one of the strategies envisaged to improve their attendance of ANC visits and their maternal and child health.MethodData were generated from 12 adolescent pregnant girls aged 15 to 19 years and eight nurses from four different health centres in the Ohangwena Region of Namibia, using semi-structured in-depth interviews. The study was conducted over the period of three months (December 2018 to March 2019). The data were grouped into clusters aided by NVivo computer software version 12. Data were organized and condensed in small units, prior to being coded, categorized, and finally grouped into main themes and sub-themes.ResultsResults revealed that long travel hours to reach the nearest clinics was amongst the leading challenges affecting accessibility and utilization of MCHI for pregnant adolescent girls. This was exacerbated by poor support with transport fare, poor road infrastructure and non-availability of transport, and these factors were key barriers to accessibility and utilization of clinic services. Other barriers pertained to the family dynamics, such as disclosing the pregnancy to the family members prior to commencing antenatal care (ANC) visits and harsh treatment from family members after the disclosure.ConclusionThe pregnant adolescent girls were concerned about their inability to access and utilize MCHI, thereby making them susceptible to maternal complications. Health educational interventions should prioritize both the adolescent girls and their families for proper support, especially since the reactions of families on the pregnancy of their adolescent girls often negatively affect accessibility and utilization of maternal and child health services. Moreover, further research on adolescents' needs during pregnancy should be expanded to include their parents, in order to better inform policymakers.

Factors affecting adherence to anti-retroviral therapy among women attending HIV clinic of a tertiary health institution in SouthEastern, Nigeria.

Strictly adherence to antiretroviral therapy (ART) is needed to achieve viral suppression. Studies have focused on HIV positive pregnant women's adherence. Factors affecting non-pregnant HIV positive women's adherence has been understudied in Enugu. The study objective was to identify factors affecting adherence to ART among HIV positive women attending retroviral clinic of a tertiary hospital in Enugu. Using a descriptive cross-sectional design, a pre-tested structured questionnaire was used for data collection among 286 HIV positive women aged 18 years and above. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics of proportions, percentages, and means. Responses with a mean score of ≥2.5 were taken as important factor affecting adherence. Overall adherence was 56.2%. Participants were considered adherent if they took ≥95% of their prescribed ART. Lack of transport fare (2.69 ±1.36), long-distance to clinic (2.82±1.26), health workers' poor attitude (2.74±1.28), and lack of partners' and parents' support (2.57±1.05) affected adherence negatively while ease in renewing prescription and minimal side effects of drugs enhanced adherence. Enfuvirtide (21.1%) and Lamivudine (17.4%) were drugs that were mostly skipped. Adherence to ART was low among the women attending the HIV clinic in Enugu. Adherence counseling and education should be provided before ART initiation. Strategies to reduce stigma, increase family support, and improve healthcare providers' attitudes should be employed.

Community based maternal health fund: a case study from women's group initiative in Awbare woreda of Somali region of Ethiopia

Access to maternal and new born health services in most poor countries has been impeded by financial barriers and there has been increased attention for the mobilization of local resources to improve access to services. This study described the establishment, management and utilization of community based maternal health fund by indigenous women’s groups in a rural area of Somali region. The community-based fund was initiated and established by the women’s group as a result of financial constraints faced by pregnant women in accessing health services in the study area. The fund relied exclusively on the group’s monthly contribution and contribution by other members of the communities. The program is unique with the contributors not being beneficiaries of the fund and the management and operation of the fund was at group’s discretion. 754 pregnant women have benefitted from the fund since it was established in 2016 (403 supported during referral to the hospital; 284 provided with transport fare and basic household commodities after delivery and 67 hosted at the maternal waiting homes and provided with food and transport fare).The study demonstrates how community members are able to mobilize local resources to develop community solutions to identified local problems through active participation and commitment. Scaling up such innovative community initiated and managed funds that do not depend on external funding or beneficiary contributions has great potential to improve access to services and improve maternal health outcomes.

Incentives for mothers, health workers and \u201cboda\u2013boda\u201d riders to improve community-based referral process and deliveries in the rural community: a case of Busoga Region in Uganda

BackgroundThis study set out to investigate how incentives for mothers, health workers and boda–boda riders can improve the community-based referral process and deliveries in the rural community of Busoga region in Uganda. Both the monetary and non-monetary incentives have been instrumental in the improvement of deliveries at health centres.MethodsThe study was a 2 arm cluster non-randomized control trial study design; with intervention and control groups of mothers, health workers and boba–boda (commercial motor-cycle) riders from selected health centres and communities in Busoga region. Among the study interventions was the provision of incentives to mothers, health workers (midwives and VHTs) and boda–boda riders for a duration of 6 months. Monetary and non-monetary incentives were applied in this study, namely; provision of training, training allowances, refreshments during the training, payment of transport fares by mothers to boda–boda riders, free telephone calls through establishment of a pre-paid Closed Caller User Group (CUG) and provision of bonus airtime to all registered CUG participants and rewards to best performers. The study used a mixed methods design. Descriptive statistical analysis was computed using STATA version 14 for the quantitative data and thematic analysis for qualitative data.ResultsFindings revealed that incentives improved community-based referrals and health facility deliveries in the rural community of Busoga. The proportion of mothers who delivered from health centres and used boda–boda transport were 70.5% in the intervention arm and only 51.2% in the control arm. Of the mothers who delivered from the health centres, majority (69.4%) were transported by trained boda–boda riders while only 30.6% were transported by un-trained boda–boda riders. And of the mothers transported by the boda boda riders, 21.3% in the intervention arm reported that the riders responded to their calls within 20 min, an improvement from 4.3% before the intervention. Mothers who were responded to between 21–30 min increased from 31.4% to 69.6% in the intervention arm while in the control arm, it only increased from 37.1% to a dismal 40.3%. Interestingly, as the time interval increased, the number of boda–boda riders who delayed to respond to mothers’ calls reduced. In the intervention arm, only 6.2% of the mothers stated that boda–boda riders took as many as 31–60 min’ time interval to respond to their calls in post intervention compared to a whopping 54.9% in the pre intervention time. There was little change in the control arm from 53.2% in the pre intervention to 41.2% in the post intervention.ConclusionIncentives along the maternal health chain are key and the initiative of incentivising the categories of stakeholders (mothers, midwives, the VHTs and the boda–boda riders) has demonstrated that partnerships are very critical in achieving better maternal outcomes (health facility-based deliveries) as a result of proper referral processes.

Innovative NFC-validation system for accounting of income and expenses of public transport enterprises

To control pricing in passenger transportation, monitor the functioning of urban transport networks, reduce direct contacts during the COVID-19 pandemic, it is advisable to implement a system of NFC validation of fares. NFC (Near-Field Communication) technology provides primary information on public transport and travel fares. The article aims to improve the method of application of the technology of automated NFC-validation of fares in urban passenger transport to account for and control provided transport services. The tasks include research of mechanisms of the automated identification and counting of quantity of the transported passengers to account incomes of the motor transport enterprises; selection of calculation units for automated determination of the cost of provided transport services; development of control methods of drivers work, the operation of vehicles, transportation of privileged categories of citizens, pricing, etc. Theoretical and methodological aspects of NFC-validation technologies for public transport fares for accounting purposes have been studied based on general research methods – institutional and innovative; economic and mathematical methods of analysis and polynomial trend using Excel spreadsheets were used to predict the pace of implementation of NFC-devices; methods of bibliographic and comparative analysis using the information resource «ResearchGate»– to determine promising areas for new technologies in the provision of transport and passenger services. It is proved that the most effective unit of cost calculation of transport services is «passenger-kilometer», which corresponds to the peculiarities of the functioning of urban passenger transport, as it takes into account the number of passengers and distance of travel. The procedure for distribution of income from the sale of electronic tickets and budget subsidies between carriers based on information on the total number (including privileged categories) of transported passengers has been developed. The method of automated cost accounting by the «passenger-kilometer» meter for fuels and lubricants, staff salaries, depreciation of vehicles, and its current repairs, which define the cost of transport services, is improved. Implementing NFC fare validation technology will facilitate automated accounting of costs, revenues, and cash receipts from transport services, the introduction of effective control over the work of drivers, vehicles, concessional transportation, pricing, timeliness, and reliability taxes on urban transport.

Barriers to Uptake of Drug Resistant Tuberculosis (DRTB) services and Care in Nigeria: Lessons Learnt from Implementation of Community Management of DR TB Patients

Objectives: This article examines the barriers to uptake of DRTB baseline and follow-up tests for DRTB patients in Nigeria. Methodology: The study involved all the Local Government Areas (LGAs} in 35 Nigerian states and the FCT where community DRTB intervention is implemented. Purposeful sampling technique was employed and included all DRTB patients currently on treatment. Data collection was done using a structured questionnaire. The data analysis was done using SPSS version 22 for running the univariate analysis and reported in frequencies and percentages. Data were summarized using descriptive statistics, frequency distribution tables and presented in tables. Results: The finding showed that 55.9% of the patients had difficulty accessing the baseline investigation tests. 49% reported lack of transport fare while 47.4% reported that the lab facility where the baseline was conducted was too far from their homes. About 58.8% of the respondents stayed up to 1-2 weeks after diagnosis before having the baseline investigation tests done and 61.4% of the patients did not always have money to go for follow-up tests Conclusion: This study showed gap between diagnosis and enrolment on treatment of patient with drug resistant Tuberculosis in Nigeria due to challenges in accessing pre-requisite baseline investigation tests. This has potential to result to loss-to-follow-up. There is need for decentralization to facilities close to where patients reside and more social support to the patients to ensure that all diagnosed patients are enrolled on treatment.

Tarif Angkutan Umum Pada Masa Pandemi Covid 19

This research is motivated by the determination of public transportation fares, hereinafter referred to as city transportation, the application of tariffs during the Covid 19 Pandemic is still carried out by means of deliberation between ORGANDA and car owners, which in the implementation of leasing between car drivers and passengers, there are often inconsistencies with regulations. The main problem in this study is how to apply public transport fares during the Covid 19 Pandemic in Padangsidimpuan City and how to review muamalah fiqh on the application of public transport fares during the Covid 19 pandemic. This study uses a field research method and is sourced from primary and secondary data. Data collection techniques used in this study were observation, interviews and documentation. The results showed that the application of the tariff carried out in the field by the driver was not in accordance with the tariff determination set by ORGANDA and the owner. Very often there is an increase in fares made by drivers to passengers for various reasons, such as the lack of passengers, and the absence of small change. So that not a few people feel uncomfortable with this behavior. According to the muamalah fiqh review of public transportation fares during the Covid 19 Pandemic in Padangsidimpuan City, it can be seen from the terms of ijarah, namely about the pleasure between the tenant and the renter, and there is no element of coercion from either of them. The decisions that have been made are not in accordance with the implementation carried out by the driver.

CHALLENGES FACED BY PHYSIOTHERAPY PRACTITIONERS AND PATIENTS REGARDING CONTINUITY OF CARE AT THE UNIVERSITY TEACHING HOSPITALS LUSAKA, ZAMBIA.

Continuity of care is a fundamental dimension of quality of care and patient satisfaction, because it leads to quality and coordinated health care delivery, increased patient trust and condence. To explore the challenges that patients and Physiotherapy practitioners face regarding continuity of care at the University Teaching Hospitals in Lusaka, Zambia. The study employed a phenomenological qualitative design, using in-depth interviews with eight physiotherapy practitioners and six patients with varying medical conditions, aged 18 years and above. This study used a purposive sampling technique based on the researcher’s judgment of the subjects. This is a form of non-probability sampling in which decisions concerning the individuals to be included in the sample were taken by the researcher, based upon a variety of criteria, including specialist knowledge of the research issue, or capacity and willingness to participate in the research. All patients reported having multiple Physiotherapy service providers, which sometimes led to uncoordinated treatment sessions. In addition, ve out of six patients cited the high cost of transport fares from their homes to the hospital and work schedules clashing with hospital appointments as most critical factors that led to discontinuity in physiotherapy care. On the other hand, physiotherapy practitioners reported difculties following up on the progress of patients due to the functional design of the Physiotherapy department which requires them to operate from both the passive and active areas of the department. High physiotherapy practitioners’ turnover per patient, long distance from patients’ homes to the hospital as well as the physical demarcation of the department of Physiotherapy into active and passive treatment areas hinder continuity of care at the University Teaching Hospitals.

Penetapan Harga Dan Penguasaan Pasar Oleh Transportasi Online Dalam Perspektif Hukum Persaingan Usaha

Starting in 2014, the online transportation appeared, the vehicles used by this transportation are also different from other conventional transportation. People who are accustomed to using conventional transportation can switch their interests due to cheaper fares and a more practical ordering system, namely through online applications. The chaos of online transportation stems from accusations that its presence is considered illegal because it does not meet the implementation of public transportation. The most basic thing is that initially online transportation did not have an Indonesian legal entity, did not have a public transportation business, and there was no obligation to conduct a due diligence (KIR). As a result, online transportation does not pay taxes, so online taxis are able to offer cheaper fares. Thus, it is necessary to study further regarding the rules regarding the determination of online transportation fares in Indonesia. Then there is a further study regarding indications of unfair business competition with online transportation fares. As a result, online transportation does not pay taxes, so online taxis are able to offer cheaper fares.

Is taxation being effectively used to promote public transport in Europe?

Public transport is a pivotal utility in increasing the long-term sustainability of cities. Consequently, there has been a growing interest in promoting a sustainable modal shift that reduces dependence on private vehicle use. This strategy has involved several specific actions, among them employing price differentiation between the two substitutes considered in this research – public transport and private cars. Governments can influence fares in different ways. However, fiscal policy governing applicable taxes is one that is often neglected in the literature. This paper investigates the relationship between the market share of public transport and taxation – in particular, value added tax (VAT), which is levied on three main products: public transport fares, fuel, and vehicle ownership. The results show that taxes matter, but not all taxes are determinant. A lower VAT rate on public transport fares and a higher tax rate on vehicle ownership can lead to an increase in public transport's market share. Taxing car utilization through VAT on fuel does appear to be significant.