Transmucosal Routes Research Articles

Pre-hospital and hospital treatment of febrile seizures

Given that febrile seizures are a common reason for both hospital and pre-hospital visits to physicians, and in the absence of a clear consensus on guidelines for treatment, especially for complex febrile seizures (CFS), we aim to examine their characteristics and treatment in order to improve the approach to the issue. This is an observational, retrospective, single-centre study including paediatric patients seen after a seizure associated with a febrile illness in the emergency department of a second-level hospital between September 2021 and December 2023. Epidemiological, clinical and treatment variables were collected. A total of 266 febrile seizures were included in the study: 188 (70.7%) were simple, and 78 (29.3%) were complex. Most benzodiazepines were administered during pre-hospital treatment (82%), and the transmucosal route was used in 70.3% of cases, despite the patient being in a healthcare environment. Complementary tests were performed in 70.6% of cases, blood tests in 65.6%, and nasopharyngeal swabs for viruses in 79.3%. A total of 73.6% of the tests requested were for patients with a focus of the fever. Extensive use of complementary tests persists, despite the identification of a focus of the fever in most patients. Our results show that systematic complementary tests and the admission of patients who have presented a CFS would not be justified, and each individual case should be considered.

NANOSTRUCTURE LIPID CARRIER TECHNOLOGY IN DRUG DELIVERY: ROUTE OF ADMINISTRATION, PREPARATION METHOD, CHARACTERIZATION, AND APPLICATION FOR ANTI-AGING

The new method, known as nanostructured lipid carrier (NLC) in drug delivery systems, has the potential to increase therapeutic efficacy, stability, and bioavailability. This systematic literature review aimed to provide a detailed summary of NLC technology in drug delivery systems, including routes of administration, preparation methods, characterization, and utilization for the delivery of anti-aging active ingredients in cosmetics. To collect scholarly articles on NLCs, we employed a systematic search method using Google Scholar and PubMed. After the screening process, 53 pertinent papers out of 102 articles were chosen for descriptive analysis. NLC exhibit significant promise in many drug delivery applications, including oral, topical, parenteral, and transmucosal routes, with many benefits, including improved bioavailability, stability, and drug penetration through the skin, cornea, and brain. Moreover, NLC technology has been effectively applied for the administration of drugs, including anti-aging drugs. Topical anti-aging preparations generally use synthetic or natural active ingredients. However, synthetic ingredients are often less stable and can irritate skin. NLC can protect and control the release of active ingredients, thereby reducing the risk of irritation. NLC can also improve the penetration of active ingredients into the deeper layers of the skin, allowing it to reach the dermis layer, which is responsible for most skin aging. The efficient absorption capacity of NLC technology in topical preparations presents new opportunities for anti-aging cosmetic product development owing to its effectiveness in skin penetration. Keywords: Nanostructured Lipid Carrier (NLC), drug delivery system, drug penetration, anti-aging

A Novel Approch for Nasal Drug Delivery System

The oral route is the most favored technique for administering the drug orally in the body. As a result of certain limitations such as drug absorption, poor bioavailability, first-pass hepatic metabolism and medicine target to particular organs, may cause problems for administration via oral route. Therefore parenteral route, transmucosal route and transdermal route are preferred over oral route. Intranasal route is deemed to be a desirable route because of the time profile of concentration a drug is close to that of the intravenous route. The nasal route has also been successfully used for bypassing the blood-brain barrier and afterword delivering drug molecules to the central nervous system .The in-situ gelling system is a process in which is in a solution form before the administration in the body but it converts in to a gel form after administration . The formation of gel depends on factors like temperature modulation, pH change, presence of ions from which drug get released in sustained and controlled manner. Therefore this review focuses on nasal drug delivery, a variety of aspects of nasal anatomy and physiology, nasal absorption mechanism, and In-Situ gels evaluations.

Formulation and Evaluation of Idebenone Microemulsion as a Potential Approach for the Transmucosal Drug Delivery Systems

Idebenone, a synthetic analogue of ubiquinone (Co-Q10), is used for the treatment of Leiber’s hereditary optic neuropathy. Although it is almost completely absorbed from GIT, its extensive rate of metabolism makes its oral bioavailability less than 1%. This study aims to formulate the poorly water-soluble drug as nanoemulsion (NE) to increase drug solubility as well as transmucosal permeation and circumventing hepatic biodegradation by using transmucosal routes of administration such as intranasal rout to enhance drug bioavailability. Nanoemulsion components were selected through screening of the preferential solubility of IDB in several oils and emulsifying agents and subsequent formulation optimization through screening for their best miscibility through phase study. Lemongrass oil showed superior characteristics to represent the oil phase in which the drug was dissolved while Cremophor EL® and Transcutol-P® represented the surfactant system. The method of spontaneous-emulsification was used to prepare twelve NE formulas (F1-F12) which were subjected to several characterization tests. Out of four successful formulas, F-11 showed the best globule size (45.6nm), PDI (0.19) zeta-potential (-2.8 mV), low viscosity and suitable pH (5.9). Using sheep nasal mucosa as model, (F-11) was subjected to ex-vivo transmucosal permeation study against plain drug oil dispersion with pronounced enhanced permeation due to formulation as NEs. Permeation kinetic parameters were obtained such as permeation rate 40.9 µg/h/cm2, lag time 15min, permeability coefficient 40.9x10-4 cm/h and enhancement ratio 39. The outcome of this study indicates the possibility of incorporation of this formula into a suitable carrier for finalizing its formulation as non-enteral dosage form with enhanced IDB bioavailability.

Strategies to Improve Cannabidiol Bioavailability and Drug Delivery.

The poor physicochemical properties of cannabidiol (CBD) hamper its clinical development. The aim of this review was to examine the literature to identify novel oral products and delivery strategies for CBD, while assessing their clinical implications and translatability. Evaluation of the published literature revealed that oral CBD strategies are primarily focused on lipid-based and emulsion solutions or encapsulations, which improve the overall pharmacokinetics (PK) of CBD. Some emulsion formulations demonstrate more rapid systemic delivery. Variability in the PK effects of different oral CBD products is apparent across species. Several novel administration routes exist for CBD delivery that may offer promise for specific indications. For example, intranasal administration and inhalation allow quick delivery of CBD to the plasma and the brain, whereas transdermal and transmucosal administration routes deliver CBD systemically more slowly. There are limited but promising data on novel delivery routes such as intramuscular and subcutaneous. Very limited data show that CBD is generally well distributed across tissues and that some CBD products enable increased delivery of CBD to different brain regions. However, evidence is limited regarding whether changes in CBD PK profiles and tissue distribution equate to superior therapeutic efficacy across indications and whether specific CBD products might be suited to particular indications.

Formulation development and in vitro evaluation of provesicular gel of ketoprofen for management of Arthritis

The fundamental principles and uses of transdermal drug delivery, which is a method for therapeutic drug delivery through the skin as an alternative to oral, intravascular, subcutaneous, and transmucosal routes. Arthritis is a chronic condition that affects nearly a quarter of the United States population. Osteoarthritis (OA) and rheumatoid arthritis (RA) are two major forms of arthritis associated with severe joint pain and reduced quality of life. Various pharmacological interventions may be utilized for arthritis treatment when non-pharmacological therapy is insufficient. However, pharmacological therapy can be associated with serious side effects and high costs. Therefore, alternative therapies have been under investigation. Some (details in tables) medications have shown the potential for safe and effective management of arthritis. this review, we attempt to summarize the mechanisms, diagnosis, treatments, clinical significant for OA and RA and all type of arthritis. The present study aims to formulate and evaluate the effectiveness of vesicular gel of ketoprofen in induced animal model. In the present work, optimization formulations of vesicular gel were prepared. Lecithin was used as polymers. The vesicular gel containing drugs and excipients were subjected to various evaluation test such as Preformulation study of drug, Particle size distribution, Morphology, Photomicroscope, Transfusion, SEM,TEM, In vitro, and Kinetic release. Various kinetic models to evaluate correlation coefficient and release rate constant. It was found that for the formulation, value of correlation coefficientof Korsemmayer Peppas equation is nearer to 1.0 and hence it can be predicted that the release from prodeformable vesicles follow Korsemmayer Peppas kinetics.

Study of Effect of <i>Panchgavya Ghrit</i> - A <i>Snehik Nasya</i> in <i>Vatika Shiroroga</i> (<i>Shirashool</i>) - An Interventional Study

Introduction: In Ayurveda, diseases related to Urdhvajatrugata and their Chikitsa have a special reference in classical texts. Among all Shirorogas, Shirashool (headache) is having prime importance as it affects the individual’s lifestyle and daily activities. Transmucosal routes of drug delivery (i.e., the mucosal linings of the oral, nasal, rectal, vaginal, and ocular cavities) offer distinct advantages over per-oral administration for systemic effect. Nasal drug delivery has been used since ancient times for therapeutic and recreational purposes. In Charak Chikitsa Sthan 26, it has been exclusively mentioned that Snehan, Swedan and Nasya as the best treatment for Vaatik Shirashool. Aim and Objective: To study the efficacy of Panchagavya Ghrit in Vataj Shirorog. To study the mode of action of Panchagavya Ghrit Pratimarsha Nasya in the same. Materials and Methods: 40 patients of Vaatik Shirashool were selected based on inclusion and exclusion criteria and symptoms based on classical symptoms in Ayurved Samhitas and evaluated based on subjective parameters. Sneha in the form of Panchagavya Ghrita was given to patients as Pratimarsha Nasya for 30 days. Follow-up was taken on the 15th, 30th, 45th and 60th of the study. Observation and Results: Observations were categorised and analysed by Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test. The results in all symptoms, i.e., pain (site, type, duration, frequency) (p=<0.05) and associated symptoms (p=<0.05) were found significant. Conclusion: Hence, Panchagavya Ghrita as Pratimarsha Nasya was found effective in Vaatik Shirashool. Neck stiffness and pulsating sensation were found most occurring symptoms along with vertigo. Hence, we can correlate Vaatik Shirashool with cervical spondylitis. Hence, Panchagavya Ghrita may be found effective in cervical spondylitis also.

Preoperative Nebulisation with Dexmedetomidine to Prevent Postoperative Sore Throat in Patients Undergoing General Anaesthesia

Introduction: Several pharmacological and non-pharmacological ways have been used to prevent Post-Operative Sore Throat (POST). Post-Operative Sore Throat (POST) can be prevented with or without medical management. Dexmedetomidine is a selective alpha 2 adrenergic agonists which can be used for pre-operative nebulization to prevent POST. Dexmedetomidine absorption will be greater through transmucosal route as it is a highly lipid soluble agent. It is a highly lipid soluble agent with good systemic absorption during transmucosal administration. Aim: To assess the efficacy of dexmedetomidine nebulisation in reducing POST in patient who require general anaesthesia with endotracheal intubation. Materials and Methods: This randomized control study was conducted from January 2022 to March 2022. There were 60 patients separated into 2 groups and 30 patients in each. The patients were of age more than 18 years and belonged to American society of Anesthesiology (ASA) grade I and II, posted for elective surgery under general anesthesia. Group D was given dexmedetomidine 50 mcg (1 ml) with 3 ml of saline and made it total volume of 4 ml nebulisation and Group C was given 4 ml of saline nebulisation. Sore throat was evaluated at 0, 2nd,4th,6th,12th and 24th hour after extubation, during the post-operative period. Results: Mean age (SD) of patients in group D was 33.5±12.9 years and that in group C was 36.83±14.5years (P value=0.23). During post operative period, the severeness of sore throat was remarkably lesser in Group D especially from 4th hour upto 24th hour. Severeness of POST was remarkably lesser in group D compared to group C patients over the 4th -24th hours. Conclusion: Dexmedetomidine nebulisation given prior to surgery is beneficial in reducing POST, with minimal haemodynamic disturbance. Dexmedetomidine in nebulised form is therefore a safe option for lowering POST

Tailoring the multi-functional properties of phospholipids for simple to complex self-assemblies.

The unique interfacial properties, huge diversity, and biocompatible nature of phospholipids make them an attractive pharmaceutical excipient. The amphiphilic nature of these molecules offers them the property to self-assemble into distinct structures. The solubility, chemical and structural properties, surface charge, and critical packing parameters of phospholipids play an essential role during formulation design. This review focuses on the relationship between the structural features of a phospholipid molecule and the formation of different lipid-based nanocarrier drug delivery systems. This provides a rationale and guideline for the selection of appropriate phospholipids while designing a drug delivery system. Finally, we refer to relevant recent case studies covering different types of phospholipid-based systems including simple to complex assemblies. Different carriers in the size range of 50nm to a few microns can be prepared using phospholipids. The carriers can be delivered through oral, intravenous, nasal, dermal, transmucosal, and subcutaneous routes. A wide range of applicability can be achieved by incorporating various hydrophilic and lipophilic additives in the phospholipid bilayer. Advanced research has led to the discovery of phospholipid complexes and cell membrane mimicking lipids. Overall, phospholipids remain a versatile pharmaceutical excipient for drug delivery. They play multiple roles as solubilizer, emulsifier, surfactant, permeation enhancer, coating agent, release modifier, and liposome former.

A Comprehensive Review on Bio-Adhesive Microspheres

A controlled medication delivery system has historically been used to produce certain rates of release or spatial concentrations of active compounds. Recent developments in drugs and polymer science delivery technology have improved innovative drug delivery systems made of bio-adhesive microspheres, advancing the use of "bio-adhesion" in drug delivery. This research evaluates the bio-adhesive MSs via transmucosal management routes, comprising the mucosal in the gastrointestinal system and other lumen, based on the advantages of adhesion arrangements and the usefulness status of MSs in mucous transport. A few new-style bio-adhesive MSs and specific studies on cell adhesive MSs are specifically mentioned. Additionally, this study aims to demonstrate the improvements made by cell-selective bio-adhesion systems known as bio-adhesive Microspheres and a few MSs with a novel bio-adhesive design are mentioned. Additionally, this evaluation aims to demonstrate the developments of site-specific medication release through stimuli-responsive MSs and bio-adhesive MSs as cell-selective bio-adhesion systems. Even if those MSs exhibit real strength, agendas need to include a few insightful ideas. In the future, processes should be closely scrutinized, and more attention should be paid to powerful bio-adhesives and "second-generation mucoadhesives." These new MSs' meaningful scientific curricula address contemporary concerns and call for further focused studies.
 Keywords: Transmucosal delivery; stimuli-responsiveness; bioavailability; bioadhesive microspheres.

Pharmacokinetics of intravenous, oral transmucosal, and intranasal buprenorphine in healthy male dogs.

Effective management of pain in animals is of critical importance but options are limited for treating acute pain in dogs on an outpatient basis. The objective of this study was to compare the plasma concentrations and pharmacokinetics of a concentrated solution of buprenorphine, 1.8 mg/ml (Simbadol™) administered intravenously, intranasally, and via the oral transmucosal (OTM) route in healthy male dogs. Five healthy castrated adult male Beagle‐cross dogs were included in this randomized blocked crossover study. The dogs received 0.03 mg/kg body weight buprenorphine intravenously, intranasally, or via the OTM route, with a minimum 72‐h washout period between treatments. Blood samples were collected at multiple intervals up to 24 h post administration and buprenorphine plasma concentrations were determined by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. Non‐compartmental pharmacokinetic analysis revealed that the area under the curve of intravenous, intranasal, and OTM routes were 28.0 (15.1–41.3) h × ng/ml, 16.1 (3.4–28.7) h × ng/ml and 10.8 (8.8–11.8) h × ng/ml, respectively. The bioavailability of intranasal and OTM routes were 57.5 (22.7–93.7)% and 41.1 (25.5–69.4)%, respectively. Intranasal and OTM routes of administration of concentrated buprenorphine in dogs may allow for the provision of analgesic care at home.

An open-label clinical trial of oral transmucosal haloperidol and oral transmucosal olanzapine in the treatment of terminal delirium at home

BackgroundThe phenomenon of restlessness, agitation, or cognitive disturbances experienced by dying patients is well-known in palliative care; more than half of these patients will experience delirium symptoms at end-of-life. When not identified early and effectively managed, delirium symptoms could lead to caregiver and patient distress and harm.MethodsEighty patients with a prognosis of 7 days or less will be recruited for an open-label randomised control trial. The two arms compare oral-transmucosal haloperidol 2.5 mg vs olanzapine 5 mg over 72 h. The severity of agitation, delirium and toxicities of treatments will be compared at the 24th, 48th and 72nd hour after drug administration.DiscussionThis trial is the first to compare anti-psychotics in the management of delirium at the dying stage in the home hospice setting using the oral transmucosal route. Ethical considerations, as well as recruitment procedures, are discussed.Trial registrationThis study was registered in ClinicalTrials.gov – identifier NCT04750395

Nanocarriers-Assisted Needle-Free Vaccine Delivery Through Oral and Intranasal Transmucosal Routes: A Novel Therapeutic Conduit.

Drug delivery using oral route is the most popular, convenient, safest and least expensive approach. It includes oral transmucosal delivery of bioactive compounds as the mucosal cavity offers an intriguing approach for systemic drug distribution. Owing to the dense vascular architecture and high blood flow, oral mucosal layers are easily permeable and can be an ideal site for drug administration. Recently, the transmucosal route is being investigated for other therapeutic candidates such as vaccines for their efficient delivery. Vaccines have the potential to trigger immune reactions and can act as both prophylactic and therapeutic conduit to a variety of diseases. Administration of vaccines using transmucosal route offers multiple advantages, the most important one being the needle-free (non-invasive) delivery. Development of needle-free devices are the most recent and pioneering breakthrough in the delivery of drugs and vaccines, enabling patients to avoid needles, reducing anxiety, pain and fear as well as improving compliance. Oral, nasal and aerosol vaccination is a novel immunization approach that utilizes a nanocarrier to administer the vaccine. Nanocarriers improve the bioavailability and serve as adjuvants to elicit a stronger immune response, resulting in increased effectiveness of vaccination. Drugs and vaccines with lower penetration abilities can also be delivered transmucosally while maintaining their biological function. The development of micro/nanocarriers for transmucosal delivery of macromolecules, vaccines and other substances is currently drawing much attention and a number of studies were performed recently. This comprehensive review is aimed to summarize the most recent investigations on needle-free and non-invasive approaches for the delivery of vaccines using oral transmucosal route, their strengths and associated challenges. The oral transmucosal vaccine delivery by nanocarriers is the most upcoming advancement in efficient vaccine delivery and this review would help further research and trials in this field.

Novel Drug Delivery Systems and its Future Prospects

Most common methods of delivery include the preferred topical (skin), transmucosal (nasal, buccal, sublingual, vaginal, ocular and rectal) and inhalation routes. The conventional dosage forms provide drug release immediately and it causes fluctuation of drug level in blood depending upon dosage form. Therefore to maintain the drug concentration within therapeutically effective range needs novel drug delivery system. In the past few decades, considerable attention has been focused on the development of novel drug delivery system (NDDS). The NDDS should ideally fulfill two prerequisites. Firstly, it should deliver the drug at a rate directed by the needs of the body, over the period of treatment. Secondly, it should channel the active entity to the site of action. In conventional drug delivery systems, there is little or no control over release of the drug and effective concentration at the target site can be achieved by irregular administration of grossly excessive doses. At present, no available drug delivery system behaves ideally, but sincere attempts have been made to achieve them through various novel approaches in drug delivery.

Polymeric and electrospun patches for drug delivery through buccal route: Formulation and biointerface evaluation

IntroductionOf the various transmucosal routes which are being considered for extended and controlled drug delivery, buccal route is superior to other methods owing to high administrability and milder environment for drug absorption. In this direction, mucoadhesive buccal films of venlafaxine were fabricated using a combination of biocompatible polymers. AimThe main objective of the study was to standardize an optimized formulation of polyvinyl alcohol, sodium carboxymethyl cellulose and sodium alginate that would lead to sustained drug delivery in the form of buccal patches. MethodsVarying polymeric concentrations were utilized for the fabrication of buccal patches via solvent casting method. The physical parameters were evaluated, followed by in vitro drug release studies. The electrospun nanofibers were prepared for optimized formulations and the buccal delivery system was compared to oral and intravenous routes for absorption, distribution, and elimination during in vivo studies using venlaflaxine. ResultsThe patches had high tensile strength with uniform drug content and surface pH in the range of 6.28–6.88. The release of drug was steady witha maximum release of 89.97% at 5 h. The negative hemolytic and cytotoxicity studies with TR146 cells over a range of concentrations indicated biocompatibility of the mucoadhesive patch with human tissues. The pharmacokinetics of the buccal patch of the radiolabeled drug, 99mTc-venlaflaxine, displayed favorable release pattern. The radiolabeled patch attached to rabbit buccal mucosa displayed high retention with controlled drug release as indicated by the Cmax and T1/2 values (19.94 ng/ml and 3 h). The drug release mechanism corresponded to a pure fickian diffusion-controlled mechanism following Higuchi's model. Electrospun fibrous patch of the drug had a 10% higher drug release than solvent cast patch. ConclusionIn vitro and in vivo data indicate that the polymeric system was successfully optimized for sustained drug release for about 5 h in a continuous manner with electrospun fibrous patch showing 10% increase in drug release studies. The patches displayed ideal physical and biocompatibility characteristics. This polymeric combination can therefore be further utilized for development of novel drug delivery systems with sustained drug release pattern.

Comparative study of specific activity of rectal suppositories with clopidogrel

One of the most effective platelet antiaggregants is clopidogrel, inhibiting platelet activation by selectively binding adenosine diphosphate (ADP) with specific receptors. However, in a number of clinical situations it is necessary to have a pronounced antithrombotic effect in the shortest possible time which gives rise to interest in the transmucose use of the drug, in particular, rectal route. The theoretical preconditions for the development of a rectal administration of clopidogrel are based on the data that the anti-aggregation effect of a substance is carried out by its main metabolite formed after “first hepatic passage”, while clopidogrel itself in this aspect is inactive. On the base of complex physico-chemical, pharmaceutical, biopharmaceutical, rheological and microbiological investigations, the rational composition of clopidogrel rectal dosage form – suppository on a hydrophilic base to prevent atherothrombotic events in patients with myocardial infarction, acute coronary syndrome, ischemic stroke, peripheral arterial occlusion, is proposed by the employees of the Department of Technology of Medications of the Zaporizhzhia State Medical University. The aim of the work is to investigate the specific activity of rectal suppositories with clopidogrel. Materials and methods. Experimental suppositories with clopidogrel 0,075 g for rectal administration were used as the objects in pre-line studies. The ability of clopidogrel to reduce the inhibitory effect of ADP on adenylate cyclase activity and decrease the number of binding sites for 2-methylthio-ADP (analogue of ADP) without altering the receptor topography is used as a base of the method of comparative study of its specific activity in the rectal dosage form (suppository) and in comparison with the reference medication Plavix (SANOFI WINTHROP INDUSTRIE, France) in the tablet form. Studies were performed on white non-linear rats of different sexes with different mass 150–210 g, aged 3.5–5.0 months. Results. Statistically significant differences in the inhibition of induced platelet aggregation were registered after 6 hours of rectal administration of clopidogrel and gastric administration of the reference medication, indicating the effectiveness of the rectal applicative transmucosal route for this active pharmaceutical ingredient (API). On the 5th day of administration, inhibition of induced platelet aggregation significantly increased, and that is supported by literature on the cumulative effect of clopidogrel in daily life. When comparing the digital material of the table, it is obvious that the rectal administration of clopidogrel is more effective in comparison with oral route which is probably due to the rapid delivery of API to the liver and the formation of an active metabolite of clopidogrel inhibiting the induction and spontaneous aggregation of platelets in human’s and animal’s blood. Obtained data provide with sound arguments for development of rectal suppositories with clopidogrel because in clinical care faster achievement of an anti-aggregation effect in patients with acute coronary syndrome is the primary task of clinical pharmacology and pharmacy. Conclusions. Using the biochemical model of pathology, it was established that the applicative semisolid medication of clopidogrel in the form of rectal suppository exhibited inductive anti-aggregation activity and its administration didn’t reveal any side effects and undesirable events. Rectal suppositories with clopidogrel have been shown to exhibit faster reliable anti-aggregation effect in comparison with intragastric administration.

Pleomorphic adenoma of the lip – a case report

This case report describes a pleomorphic adenoma in an unusual location. A 47-year-old man presented with a painless, slow growing tumor in his upper lip. An interview and physical examination were the basis for an initial diagnosis of a benign tumor. The lesion was removed entirely under local anesthesia using the trans-mucosal route. Histopathological examination revealed pleomorphic adenoma. The patient remains under constant outpatient control.

Mucoadhesive polymers for buccal drug delivery system: An overview

Pharmaceutical scientists around the globe have been seeking to discover as an alternative to injections over the last few, transdermal and transmucosal routes decades. The buccal cavity mucosa the most convenient and easily available site for the distribution of local and systemic therapeutic agents was found to be dosage forms among the numerous transmucosal sitesavailable.Theories and various polymers used in mucoadhesive drug delivery. Mucoadhesive polymers increases the residence time, prolong the absorption, enhances solubilityand dissolution characteristics of poorly soluble drugs. In addition, we are focused on the latest generation of mucoadhesion polymers, led by the latest formulation of mucoadhesive for the distribution of oral drugs, such as thiolated polymers. A good insight into mucoadhesion polymers, the mucoadhesive phenomenon and the factors that can affect polymer mucoadhesion is given in the current analysis. The systematic drug delivery has been investigated for buccal mucosa and local drug treatment or therapy is subjected to first pass metabolism. Oral mucosa drug delivery by discussing the structural features of mucosa, mechanism of mucoadhesion. General consideration in design of mucoadhesive buccal dosage forms, permeation enhancers and the various evalution method along with literature survey of the buccal mucoadhesive.

Drug Penetration Enhancement Techniques in Transdermal Drug Delivery System: A Review

Transdermal Drug Delivery System (TDDS) is described as a self-contained or discrete dosage form that is applied to the intact skin. This rout of drug administration of drugs through the skin for therapeutic use is an alternative approach to oral, intravascular, subcutaneous, and transmucosal routes. The delivery of drugs through the skin to the systemic circulation provides a convenient route of administration for a variety of clinical indications. Transdermal Drug Delivery System allows continuous drug administration, use of drugs with short biological half lives, avoids increases hepatic first pass elimination and rapid termination of medication by removing the transdermal drug delivery system from the skin. Various transdermal technologies may be applied for different categories of pharmaceuticals used for the treatment of disorders of the skin or for systemic effects to treat diseases of other organs. Several transdermal products and applications include hormone replacement therapy, contraception, pain management, angina pectoris, smoking cessation, and neurological disorders such as Parkinson's disease. The most commonly used transdermal system is the skin patch using various types of technologies. Stratum corneum is the outermost layer of the skin and it is the main barrier layer for permeation of drug in transdermal delivery of drugs. So, to circumvent the barrier properties of stratum corneum and to increase the flux of drug through skin membrane various penetration enhancement techniques are used in transdermal drug delivery system. The review presents different physical and chemical methods in penetration enhancement approaches and to optimize the transdermal delivery system.

Ovalbumin and cholera toxin delivery to buccal mucus for immunization using microneedles and comparison of immunological response to transmucosal delivery

The oral mucosa is an effective site for vaccination. However, for oral mucosal vaccines, delivery of the right dose of vaccine is not possible due to the water-rich environment. In this study, the buccal mucosa, which is easy to access using a microneedle array in the oral cavity, was selected as the administration site. The immune responses to the use of microneedles to conventional transmucosal delivery were compared. In addition, the adjuvant effect of the addition of cholera toxin (CT) to the drug formulation was observed. Two kinds of patches were prepared: (1) Ovalbumin (OVA) was dip coated only on the tips of microneedles (C-OVA-MN) and (2) OVA was coated on the surface of a flat disk patch substrate without microneedles (C-OVA-D). The drug delivery properties of C-OVA-MN and C-OVA-D were investigated using fluorescent-labeled OVA (OVA/FITC). Each patch was administered to mice twice, 2weeks apart, and then antibody titers were measured. A microneedle patch can deliver vaccine into the epithelium of the buccal mucosa in a short period of time compared to transmucosal delivery. A microneedle system of C-OVA-MN showed a high serum IgG titer. In addition, CT triggered CD8+ and CD4+ T cell-mediated immune responses. Through this study, we present the possibility of a new method of vaccination to the buccal mucosa using microneedles and CT adjuvant. Illustration of delivery of vaccine to the oral mucosal epithelium using a microneedle patch: Ovalbumin (OVA)-coated microneedle (C-OVA-MN) consists of tip, step, and coating formulation. Microneedle patch coated with OVA formulation is targeting buccal mucosa, which is easy to access in the oral cavity. OVA is delivered to the buccal epithelium precisely using a microneedle patch, and OVA is delivered by transmucosal route using a disk patch.