Transmission Of Viral Infections Research Articles

Review of the Prevention of the Hepatitis B Virus Infection Transmission From Mother to Child During Pregnancy

Context: The hepatitis B virus (HBV) is a highly infectious virus which spreads through blood and other infected fluids such as semen. Individuals can be infected with the virus through sexual contact, by sharing needles or by a needle accident, by getting a body piercing or tattooing, and prenatally or at birth, if the mother is infected with the virus. Evidence Acquisition: We searched medical databases (namely PubMed and Scopus) from January 2000 to January 2015. Keywords were epidemiology, transmission routes, and prevention of infection during pregnancy. Results: On the basis of our results, the transmission of the HBV from the infected mother to her child during pregnancy is an important way for the acquisition of the virus. The routine vaccination of neonates and the use of immunoglobulin at birth are very effective for the prevention of infection, when a mother is infected. Also, the treatment of the infected mother to decrease the viral load is another preventive method for the protection of her child. Conclusions: Our study showed that routine vaccination in children and screening of pregnant women for the HBV infection and then preventative strategies for neonates are the most important routes for minimizing the transmission of infection from mother to child.

Short term change in relative humidity during the festival of Diwali in India

The changes in humidity levels during the Diwali festivities have been examined over a period of 13 years at three Indian metro cities: Ahmedabad, New Delhi and Kolkata. A small short term increase in relative humidity even in the absence of transport of humid air from Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal has been observed. The relative humidity levels were found to be exceeding the ambient levels during night and lying below the ambient levels during morning hours, indicating an increase in the survival rates of viruses responsible for the transmission of viral infections, as well as triggering immune-mediated illnesses such as asthma during Diwali.

Transmission of human cytomegalovirus via breastmilk and potential risks to very preterm infants

Breastfeeding has clear short-term benefits for the baby1. Additionally, based on a prospective long-term cohort study from Brazil, breastfeeding is associated with improved IQ scores and increased educational attainment 30 years later2. During lactation, mother-to-infant transmission of viral infections like HIV, hepatitis B (HBV), and human cytomegalovirus (HCMV), may occur. The article presented here will focus on the dynamics of HCMV shedding into breastmilk, describe the short- and long-term risks of HCMV infection of small preterm infants, and options for prevention.

Differences in HIV risk behaviors among people who inject drugs by gender and sexual orientation, San Francisco, 2012

BackgroundSharing of drug injection equipment is a well-established risk factor for the transmission of viral infections, such as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). However, there are multiple mechanisms through which people who inject drugs (PWID) can acquire and transmit HIV. Differences in drug using and sexual behaviors among heterosexual males, males who have sex with males (MSM), and females who inject drugs may explain health disparities. MethodsData were collected in San Francisco by the National HIV Behavioral Surveillance (NHBS) System of PWID in 2012, and were analyzed to compare the sexual behaviors, drug use behaviors, and prevalence of viral infections among heterosexual males, MSM, and females. ResultsUsing a weighted analysis for the RDS sampling design, we estimate that 3.7% of heterosexual males who inject drugs, 24.0% of MSM, and 13.0% of females who inject drugs are living with HIV. Females and heterosexual males primarily injected heroin, while MSM primarily injected methamphetamine. MSM were most likely to have received goods or money for sex and have unprotected intercourse. ConclusionThese data demonstrate differences in risk behaviors and prevalence of viral infections among heterosexual males, MSM, and females. The results also suggest that public health programs prioritizing the different populations of PWID are necessary.

Antibodies to islet cell autoantigens, rotaviruses and/or enteroviruses in cord blood and healthy mothers in relation to the 2010-2011 winter viral seasons in Israel: a pilot study

To determine whether antivirus and/or islet cell antibodies can be detected in healthy pregnant mothers without diabetes and/or their offspring at birth in two winter viral seasons. Maternal and cord blood sera from 107 healthy pregnant women were tested for islet cell autoantibodies using radioligand binding assays and for anti-rotavirus and anti-CoxB3 antibody using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD)65 autoantibodies and rotavirus antibodies, present in both maternal and cord blood sera, correlated with an odds ratio of 6.89 (95% CI: 1.01-46.78). For five, 22 and 17 pregnancies, antibodies to GAD65, rotavirus and CoxB3, respectively, were detected in cord blood only and not in the corresponding maternal serum. In 10 pregnancies, rotavirus antibody titres in the cord blood exceeded those in the corresponding maternal serum by 2.5-5-fold. Increased antibody titres after the 20(th) week of gestation suggested CoxB3 infection in one of the 20 pregnancies and rotavirus in another. The concurrent presence of GAD65 antibodies in cord blood and their mothers may indicate autoimmune damage to islet cells during gestation, possibly caused by cross-placental transmission of viral infections and/or antivirus antibodies. Cord blood antibody titres that exceed those of the corresponding maternal sample by >2.5-fold, or antibody-positive cord blood samples with antibody-negative maternal samples, may imply an active in utero immune response by the fetus.

Prevention of viral infection transmission in dental practice

The risk of transmission of viral infections in dentistry has caused great public fear both among patients and dentists. This is primarily related to the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and hepatitis viruses (HBV and HCV), which can cause many complications. This problem is particularly important in dental practice where the appropriate protection during all dental procedures is required. The application of preventive measures against blood-borne infections (HIV, HBV and HCV) may prevent transmission of these infectious agents during dental intervention. The aim of this study was to emphasize possible ways of transmission and advise prevention and protection measures against HIV, HBV and HCV infections in dental practice.

Anogenital Warts

Anogenital warts are one of the most prevalent sexually transmitted virus infections in the Netherlands and cause frustration, shame, and even depression. This study was performed to determine the effect of having anogenital warts on the quality of life in Dutch soldiers with the use of a dermatology-specific quality of life (QoL) questionnaire. We used the Skindex-29 QoL questionnaire in 100 predominantly heterosexual soldiers with clinically confirmed first episode of condylomata acuminate in this study. Results confirmed that first episodes of anogenital warts cause high mean scores on subscale Emotions with lower scores on the subscales Symptoms and Functioning. Sex, age, educational level, anatomical site, or number of anatomical sites did not influence the outcome in this study. Having anogenital warts influences QoL, especially with regard to intimacy, shame, and concern. Our data show that the Skindex-29 QoL questionnaire can be easily used in these patients with good internal consistency. Clinicians should be aware of the great emotional impact of anogenital warts on their patients.

Recent advances in designing an effective vaccine to prevent cytomegalovirus-associated clinical diseases

It is now well over a decade since the US Institute of Medicine of the National Academy of Sciences assigned the highest priority for a vaccine to prevent congenital human CMV infection, which was subsequently endorsed by the US National Vaccine Program Office. In spite of extensive efforts over many years, successful licensure of a CMV vaccine formulation remains elusive. While the understanding of immune regulation of CMV infection in healthy virus carriers and diseased patients has dramatically improved, traditional vaccine development programs have failed to exploit this knowledge. Until recently, most efforts have concentrated on designing vaccine formulations that block CMV infection through neutralizing antibodies. However, studies carried out in various disease settings, especially in transplant patients, have clearly emphasized the importance of cellular immunity and it is indeed encouraging to see that recent CMV vaccine development programs have started to incorporate this arm of the immune system. A number of new vaccine candidates have been found to be effective in preclinical studies, and are able to induce CMV-specific immune responses in clinical studies, although firm evidence for long-term efficacy is not yet available. For successful implementation of these vaccines in clinical settings, it will be important to demonstrate that the vaccine can induce effective levels of immunity for prevention of transmission of viral infection from mother to unborn baby and thus reduce CMV-related pathogenesis. For transplant recipients, vaccine strategies should be aimed at the induction of immunity that restricts viral reactivation and limits development of disease.

Assessment of Reporting, Attitudes and Knowledge About the Stab Incidents and Professional Risk of Viral Infection among Health Care Professionals in Primary Health Care

Conflict of interest: none declared.GoalThe goal of the research is to determine the relationship between frequency and reporting of stab incidents, attitudes and knowledge about stab incidents and occupational risk for transmission of viral infection with HBV, HCV or HIV among health care professionals employed in primary health care.Material and methodsConducted is prospective, cross-section study by questionnaires in 2012. The survey included health professionals in Primary Health Care Center in Tuzla. The final sample has 131 respondents (85% women). Statistical analysis was performed using the statistical package SPSS version 20.0.ResultsThe prevalence rate of stab incidents throughout their career in our study was 66%; while the rate of reported incidents was 4.83 ˜ 5 times lower than the actual prevalence. In 49 out of 87 cases this was a case of hollow needle prick. The most common causes of stab incidents are the time pressure, unforeseen reactions of patients and lack of concentration.ConclusionStab incidents are often not reported in in developing countries. Training in order to raise awareness and knowledge about the problem, proper procedures, good organization of work and anti-stress program, safer disposal, conducting prophylaxis before and after exposure monitored by the relevant institutions of occupational medicine should contribute to solving this problem.

Prevalence of Transfusion Transmitted Virus Infection in Hemodialysis Patients and Injection Drug Users Compared to Healthy Blood Donors in Isfahan, Iran

Introduction. The pathogenicity and transmission routes of Transfusion Transmitted Virus (TTV) remain unclear. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of TTV in hemodialysis patients, injecting drug users (IDUs), and healthy blood donors, in Isfahan, Iran. Method. In a case-control study, a total of 108 subjects were put into three groups namely Group I, 36 hemodialysis patients; Group II, 36 IDUs; and Group III, 36 healthy blood donors as the control group. A 5 ml blood sample was collected from each subject in an EDTA-containing tube. Samples were tested for TTV DNA by means of real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Results. The mean age was 38.7 ± 14.7 years. Seventy-one subjects (66%) were male. Of the108 cases, 30 (27.8%) were TTV positive and 78 (72.2%) were TTV negative. The prevalence of TTV in IDUs [21 (58%)] was significantly higher than in the other groups [group I: 6 (17 %) and group III: 3 (8%)] (P < 0.0001). Conclusion. The prevalence of TTV in IDUs is significantly higher than in both hemodialysis patients and general population in Isfahan, Iran. It seems necessary to take serious measures to reduce the risk of TTV transmission to IDUs' close contacts and health care providers.

Longer-Term Outcomes After Kidney Transplantation From Seronegative Deceased Donors at Increased Risk for Blood-Borne Viral Infection

Transmission of human immunodeficiency virus and hepatitis C to transplant recipients has drawn attention of the use of allografts from seronegative donors at increased risk for blood-borne viral infection (DIRVI). We performed a cohort study of 7803 kidney transplant recipients whose kidneys were recovered through one of two organ procurement organizations from 1996 to 2007. Detailed organ procurement organization data on donor risk factors were linked to recipient data from the Organ Procurement and Transplantation Network. Median recipient follow-up was 3.9 years. Three hundred sixty-eight (5%) patients received DIRVI kidneys, a third of which were procured from donors with a history of injection drug use or commercial sex work. Compared with standard criteria kidney recipients, DIRVI kidney recipients were more likely to be human immunodeficiency virus positive or black. In multivariable Cox regression, using DIRVI recipients as the reference, recipients of standard criteria donor kidneys had lower mortality (hazard ratio [HR] 0.71, P<0.01) and no difference in death-censored allograft failure (HR 1.09, P=0.62), whereas recipients of expanded criteria donor kidneys had no significant difference in mortality (HR 0.98, P=0.83) but a higher allograft failure rate (HR 1.93, P<0.01). High-quality data on posttransplant recipient viral testing were not available. DIRVI kidney recipients experienced higher mortality than standard criteria kidney recipients. This finding could be explained if sicker patients received DIRVI kidneys (i.e., residual confounding) or the less likely possibility of undetected transmission of viral infections. Given the limitations of registry data used in this analysis, prospective studies are needed to further elucidate these findings.

Clinical assessment of Optivate®, a high-purity concentrate of factor VIII with von Willebrand factor, in the management of patients with haemophilia A

Summary. Factor VIII (FVIII) concentrates have revolutionized the treatment of patients with haemophilia A. Concerns over the transmission of viral infections through these products have been addressed through stringent, donor‐screening procedures and robust antiviral manufacturing steps. Bio Products Laboratory has developed a high‐purity FVIII product with von Willebrand factor, Optivate®. Its safety, tolerability and efficacy as prophylaxis and treatment of bleeds have been established in long‐term studies. Seventy previously treated patients with severe haemophilia A, with ≥20 exposure days, were recruited into two long‐term, multicentre, open‐label studies. The protocols were virtually identical. Patients received Optivate® either prophylactically or on‐demand. A mean of 159.0 EDs were experienced over 11 320 infusions. Under both conditions, Optivate® was well tolerated. Only 10% of patients experienced a treatment‐related adverse event; the most commonly reported were headache (4% of patients) and dizziness (3% of patients). The mean number of bleeds/patient over the 2 year treatment period was 23.5 during prophylactic use and 70.4 during on‐demand use. In patients treated prophylactically, clinical responses to breakthrough bleeds were rated by physicians as excellent or good and as very helpful or helpful by patients in 95% of bleeds. Clinical responses for on‐demand patients were rated as excellent or good by physicians and helpful or very helpful by the patients for 91% of bleeds. There were no viral transmissions or inhibitors. The studies confirm the clinical efficacy and safety of Optivate® in both prophylactic and on‐demand management of patients with haemophilia A.

A Serologic Survey of Viral Infections in Captive Ungulates in Turkish Zoos

Zoos and zoologic gardens make optimal environments for interspecies transmission of viral infections. There are seven zoos and several small zoologic collections in Turkey. This study aimed to determine the current status of viral infections in captive ungulates living in these environments. Blood samples were taken from 163 captive animals from two zoos. There were 39 Cameroon sheep (Ovis ammon f aries), 11 Barbary sheep (Ammotragus lervia), 57 pygmy goats (Capra hircus), 9 Angora goats (Capra hircus), 21 mountain goats (Capra aegagrus-aegagrus), 7 llamas (Lama glama), 8 Persian goitred gazelle (Gazella subgutturosa subgutturosa), 7 Caspian red deer (Cervus elaphus maral), 2 fallow deer (Dama dama), and 2 camels (Camelus dromedarius). Antibodies against bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV), bovine herpesvirus-1 (BHV-1), bovine adenoviruses (BAV-1 and -3), parainfluenzavirus 3 (PI-3), and bluetongue viruses (BTV-4 and -9) were investigated using the virus neutralization test, and malignant catarrhal fever (MCF) antibodies were screened by ELISA. All animals were negative for BVDV and BHV-1 antibodies. Seroprevalence of BAV-1, BAV-3, PI-3, BRSV, BT-4, BT-9, and MCF were detected as follows: 46.6%, 60.1%, 0.6%, 7.3%, 1.8%, 1.2%, and 51.6%, respectively. Seroprevalence of BAVs and MCF were more common than all other viruses (P < 0.0001). Ten sheep (37.0%), 48 goats (84.2), and 1 Ilama (14.2%) were the only species positive for MCF antibodies. Prevalence of BRSV and MCF antibodies were found to be significantly higher in goats than in sheep. BTV antibodies were detected both in Cameroon sheep and mountain goats and suggest that zoo animals are at risk for BTV in endemic regions.

Feeding behaviour of the greenbug Schizaphis graminum on wheat plants treated with imidacloprid and/or silicon

AbstractThe greenbug Schizaphis graminum (Rond.) (Hemiptera: Aphididae) is one of the principal pests of Triticum aestivum L. and may be responsible for the injection of toxins, the transmission of viral infections and, ultimately, plant death. The aphid can be controlled by the use of selective insecticides or with the application of silicon. The objective of the present study was to investigate the influence of imidacloprid and silicon on the feeding behaviour of S. graminum on wheat plants. Aphids collected from and reared on sorghum plants were maintained in a growth room at 25 ± 2°C; 12 h photoperiod. Seeds of the wheat cultivar EMBRAPA 22 were planted in plastic pots containing a commercially available soil substrate and thinned out 8 days after sowing to leave two vigorously growing seedlings in each pot. Four treatments (each replicated 25 times) were applied: (i) seeds were treated with imidacloprid (36 g/100 kg) 1 day prior to sowing; (ii) silicon (50 ml of 1% silicic acid; equivalent to a dose of 1000 kg of silicon/ha) was applied directly to the substrate 10 days after plant emergence; (iii) the described treatments with imidacloprid and silicon were applied jointly; and (iv) neither seeds nor substrate were treated (untreated controls). Electrical penetration graph assays were performed 15, 30 and 45 days after plant emergence. The results showed that wheat seed treatment with imidacloprid and/or the application of silicon to the substrate reduced both the feeding time of S. graminum and the percentage of insects that fed on phloem sap. Moreover, this study provides further support that the action of silicon may not be restricted to physical resistance (constitutive or induced) but may also involve induced plant chemical defence.

Suitability of an automated nucleic acid extractor (easyMAG) for use with hepatitis C virus and human immunodeficiency virus type 1 nucleic acid amplification testing

Serological screening assays have greatly reduced, but not eliminated, the risk of transmission of viral infections by transfusion of blood and blood products. In addition, the 1999 regulation of the European Agency for the Evaluation of Medicinal Products requiring all plasma for fractionation to have tested negative for hepatitis C virus (HCV) RNA (CPMP/BWP/390/97, 1998) led many blood transfusion services to introduce nucleic acid amplification technology (NAT) to screen blood donations for HCV, and in some services for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and hepatitis B virus (HBV). BioMérieux's second-generation system, the NucliSENS easyMAG, was evaluated as a suitable platform for the automated extraction of nucleic acids for use with the existing SNBTS NAT assays. Two nucleic acid extraction protocols were examined, either lysis on the easyMAG (on board) or a 30-min pre-incubation of the sample with lysis buffer at 37°C (off board). Off board lysis was found to extract nucleic acid more efficiently for both HCV and HIV NAT assays although the improvement was more marked with HIV. The 95% limit of detections (LODs) were 10.11IU/ml (on board) and 7.21IU/ml (off board) for HCV and 55.11IU/ml (on board) and 34.13 (off board) for HIV. Using the more sensitive off board lysis, nucleic acid extraction specificity, robustness and reliability of the easyMAG were examined and over 10,000 Scottish blood donations (in 107 pools of 95 donations) were tested for HCV and HIV in parallel with the existing assay. The results indicate that the easyMAG is a suitable and flexible nucleic acid extraction system, providing high quality nucleic acids and a rapid response alternative to commercial, fully automated, approved blood screening platforms.

Viral Infections in the Neonate

Maternal to child transmission of viral infections can have devastating outcomes on the developing fetus and the neonate. Effective prevention and screening programs for women of childbearing age are key factors in influencing the outcomes for the neonate. Furthermore, early identification of viral infections in neonates is critical to the success of the treatment plan. This article describes the mechanism of maternal to child transmission of viral infections and examines the general approach to the neonate with suspected viral infection. The diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of neonatal cytomegalovirus, herpes simplex virus, and human immunodeficiency virus infections are presented. Lastly, current challenges and controversies related to the management of viral infections in the neonate are discussed.

Management of chronic viral hepatitis in patients with thalassemia: recommendations from an international panel

AbstractChelation therapy with new drugs prevents cardiac damage and improves the survival of thalassemia patients. Liver diseases have emerged as a critical clinical issue. Chronic liver diseases play an important role in the prognosis of thalassemia patients because of the high frequency of viral infections and important role of the liver in regulating iron metabolism. Accurate assessment of liver iron overload is required to tailor iron chelation therapy. The diagnosis of hepatitis B virus– or hepatitis C virus–related chronic hepatitis is required to detect patients who have a high risk of developing liver complications and who may benefit by antiviral therapy. Moreover, clinical management of chronic liver disease in thalassemia patients is a team management issue requiring a multidisciplinary approach. The purposes of this paper are to summarize the knowledge on the epidemiology and the risks of transmission of viral infections, to analyze invasive and noninvasive methods for the diagnosis of chronic liver disease, to report the knowledge on clinical course of chronic viral hepatitis, and to suggest the management of antiviral therapy in thalassemia patients with chronic hepatitis B or C virus or cirrhosis.

Clinical audit of inherited bleeding disorders in a developing country

We did a clinical audit to determine the status of coagulation disorders in a hemophilia care center in Pakistan. Fatimid foundation blood bank and hematological diseases center, Lahore. This is a retrospective descriptive study. All patients registered at Lahore center were included. Data was collected using a questionnaire including age, gender, diagnosis, hepatitis and human immune deficiency virus (HIV) status, number of episodes of bleeding, most common site of bleeding, severity of disorder and number of transfusions required to treat the episode. During the study period, a total of 923 registered patients were reviewed at Lahore center and of these, 408 patients (44.2%) were on regular follow-up. Inherited bleeding disorders identified in these patients included hemophilia A, hemophilia B, vWD, factor VII deficiency, factor V deficiency, factor X deficiency, dysfibrinogenemia, afibrinogenemia, factor XIII deficiency; and platelet function defects. Median age was 17 years with a range of three to 57 years. Median age at diagnosis was one year. There were 329 (80.6%) males and 79 (19.3%) females. The products used in these patients included factor VIII concentrate, fresh frozen plasma, cryoprecipitate, cryosupernatant and platelets. Testing for transmission of viral infections was also done in these patients and one patient (0.2%) was found hepatitis B positive, six patients (1.4%) were hepatitis C positive and two patients (0.49%) were HIV positive. Hemophilia A, hemophilia B and vWD are the commonly encountered inherited bleeding disorders in our patients followed by other recessively transmitted disorders with a median age of 17 years and male to female ratio of 4: 1. Most of the patients utilized services available at Fatimid foundation with good clinical results. In Pakistan, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are trying their best for providing optimal treatment to patients with inherited bleeding disorders. There is a need for government participation to improve the availability of current hemophilia care services.

Effect of surfactants, temperature, and sonication on the virucidal activity of polyhexamethylene biguanide against the bacteriophage MS2

Virucidal compounds are essential in preventing the transmission of viral infection in the health care environment. Understanding their mechanisms of action is necessary to improve their efficacy. Inactivation of viruses is less documented than that of bacteria notably because different types of virus have diverse response to microbicides, making difficult to establish an inactivation pattern. The effect of viral aggregates on the virucidal activity of polyhexamethylene biguanide-based microbicide VANTOCIL TG (Arch Chemicals, Manchester, UK) against the bacteriophage MS2 was investigated by using in combination a standard suspension efficacy test under different conditions and dynamic light scattering measuring the presence and size of aggregates. Temperature had a key role in increasing significantly the virucidal activity of VANTOCIL TG, reducing virus concentration by 4-log(10) within 10 minutes at 40 degrees C. The high temperature was linked to a reduction of viral aggregates despite the exposure to the biguanide. In addition, the viral inactivation kinetic became significantly more linear at 30 degrees C and 40 degrees C. Such results were also observed with sonication during treatment, where a first-order kinetic was observed. However, the addition of surfactants, even though there was evidence of a decrease in viral clumps, did not enhance the virucidal activity of polyhexamethylene biguanide. The presence of viral aggregates was an important factor in the virucidal efficacy of the biguanide as demonstrated by the correlation among high temperature, decrease in aggregates, and increase in activity, although it is possible that high temperatures might also cause conformational changes of the viral capsid, increasing the sensitivity of virions to the microbicide.

Emerging infections in Asia and its possible global effects.

Emerging infections in Asia and its possible global effects.