Light Transmission Research Articles

Low-cost preparation of multifunctional anti-fog coating with double-layer composite structure

This study presents the development of a two-layer superhydrophilic nanocoating (superhydrophilic SFPn coating) for transparent materials to mitigate the negative effects of ambient temperature on their performance. The proposed coating combines excellent superhydrophilic and anti-reflective features and has high mechanical stability due to the anchoring structure formed by the underlying layer with spherical silica sols and the bonding effect of fibrous silica sols. The influence of the average particle size of the fibrous silica sol on the morphology and properties of the coating was investigated. The results show that the superhydrophilic SFPn coating prepared with a fibrous silica sol with an average particle size of 2.456 nm achieves a significant light transmission of 98.93 % at 454 nm, which is an 8 % improvement compared to bare glass. The proposed coating achieved a water contact angle of 6.7°. Extensive testing has demonstrated the effectiveness of the coating in terms of anti-fogging, adhesion and self-cleaning. These findings highlight the potential of the proposed coating to improve the reliability and performance of transparent materials and offer promising solutions for the application of transparent materials in a variety of fields such as optical instruments, agriculture, and automotive.

МЕТОД РАСЧЕТА ОПТИМАЛЬНОГО РЕЖИМА ДИСПЕРГИРОВАНИЯ РАСТВОРОВ ПОЛИМЕРНЫХ КОМПОЗИТОВ В ТУРБИННОЙ МЕШАЛКЕ

LSTU has developed a turbine stirrer for mixing and dispersing solutions of polymer nanocomposites designed to restore mounting holes in the body parts of equipment. Formula is proposed for calculation of optimal rotation frequency of turbine mixer, which takes into account structural parameters of mixer and physical properties of nanoparticles, which provides effective mixing of nanoparticles of filler in solution of nanocomposite. An experiment was carried out to assess the adequacy of a mathematical model of the turbine stirrer speed. Experimental turbine agitators of three different sizes were used in the experiment. A solution of elastomer nanocomposite F-40S was used for mixing. The dispersion quality was evaluated by the light transmission coefficient. For each turbine stirrer size, experimental non-linear dependences of the transmittance on the stirrer speed were obtained. After approximation of experimental dependences and taking partial derivatives, their extremes are determined, i.e. actual optimal rotation frequencies for each mixer size: n оф1 = 1325 min-1; nof2 = 1113 min-1;, nof3 = 973 min-1. Then the power consumed by stirrers of various sizes at a speed of 500, 1000 and 1500 min-1 was measured. Further, the values of the circumferential velocity coefficients k were calculated for each stirrer using the measured power values. As the stirrer diameter increases from 34 to 90 mm, the corresponding circumferential velocity factor k increases from 0.9534 to 0.9703, indicating an increase in circumferential flow.Further, according to the proposed formula, using the values of the coefficients of peripheral speeds, the calculated values of the optimal speed for stirrers No. 1, No. 2 and No. 3 were obtained: n op1 = 1307 min-1; nop2 = 1100 min-1;, nop3 = 965 min-1. Analysis of variance showed that the calculated Fischer value does not exceed the table value, which confirms the adequacy of the formula for calculating the optimal speed of the turbine stirrer.

Angle-insensitive perfect light transmission and absorption in one-dimensional photonic crystal heterostructures

Abstract Prefect light transmission in metamaterials typically suffers a frequency shift as the incident angle of wave increase, limiting their applicability across wide angles. One-dimensional photonic crystal heterostructures, with elliptic-shaped equi-frequency contours, exhibit angle-insensitive properties. However, there remains an inevitable blue shift in the optical response as the incident angle increases. In this work, we present two photonic crystal heterostructures, one of which is composed of the optical phase-change material Sb2S3. By combining two heterostructures with distinct Zak phases, we achieve perfect light transmission. Specifically, as incident angle of wave increases, the transmission peak can be strictly maintained without a frequency shift by tuning the phase (refractive index) of Sb2S3. Moreover, by jointing the heterostructures with a thin silver film, we demonstrate a Tamm plasma polariton mode with angle-insensitive property. This mode can facilitate angle-tolerant light absorption. Our work provides an alternative way to designing high angle-tolerant and tunable devices.

Transparent Cellulose Aerogels from Concentrated Salt Solutions: Synthesis and Characterization

AbstractIn this work, nanostructured and transparent cellulose aerogels are synthesized via a purely salt induced approach from non‐modified microcrystalline cellulose type II. The production process requires in contrast to state of the art methods no pretreatment of cellulose or use of expensive cellulose‐solvents: it consists of hydrogel formation via cross‐linking of cellulose with calcium ions, a solvent exchange and a supercritical drying step. A systematic multiparameter study reveals that a high level of structural control is achievable: ratios of macro‐ to mesoporosity and the size of mesopores can be tailored by adjustment of the calcium ion content, while keeping a high overall porosity in the range of 92% – 96 %. The build‐up of homogeneous, fine pore structures results in a significant increase of the specific surface area as compared to conventional calcium‐free aerogels (684 vs. 300 m2 g−1). Remarkably, the Ca2+‐cross‐linking renders aerogels transparent, with Rayleigh scattering being the dominant scattering mechanism. Additional ion exchange to Ca2+ in the hydrogel‐state leads to further reduction of the pore size and to products with optimized optical properties, e.g., light transmission of 91% at an incidents light wavelength of 800 nm and a substrate thickness of 1.5 mm.

Sonic crystal green walls based on a combination of cylinder scatterers and vegetation for noise mitigation in urban design

This study proposes sonic crystal green walls based on combined cylinder scatterers and vegetation. It has been known that the vegetation or greenery system is effective in dealing with environmental pollutants, while the cylinder scatterer arranged periodically, also known as a sonic crystal, is preferable owing to the capability of noise attenuation, light transmission, and air circulation simultaneously. Combining both components into a single noise abatement system is expected to provide acoustical and non-acoustical features for urban design, where such an approach maximizes the merit of each component. Moreover, the system is useful for advocating sustainability amid global warming issues. In this work, a numerical model is developed using finite element method (FEM), while experimental results are provided to validate the absorption and attenuation results. It is found that the sonic crystal can attain an attenuation of 13.5 dB around 1.6 kHz. Such a promising result is extended further to lower frequency under a specific configuration of scatterers corresponding to lattice distance and filling faction ratio parameters. Meanwhile, the vegetation can enhance overall attenuation at higher frequencies.

Ultrastructure and functional morphology of the mouthparts in Pterygosoma pseudotrapelus (Bochkov, Melnikov et Nazarov, 2009) (Acariformes, Pterygosomatidae)

ABSTRACT The mouthparts of the pterygosomatid mite, Pterygosoma pseudotrapelus (Bochkov, Melnikov et Nazarov, 2009) (Acariformes, Pterygosomatidae), were studied with light microscopy, scanning (SEM) and transmission (TEM) electron microscopy. The mouthparts are located within the (pseudo)tagma gnathosoma. The gnathosoma is formed of the two frontal body segments with their appendages – chelicerae and pedipalps (palps). The two-segmented chelicerae occupy a dorsal position, whereas the infracapitulum – a derivative of the fused palp coxae – occupies a ventral position. The basal cheliceral segments are widen basally, and contain protractors and retractors of the movable digits and nerve fibres. The distal cheliceral segments, the movable digits, are small and stout, bear a lateral spur, and are provided with tips looking aside. The fixed digits are long and branched. The frontal projection of the infracapitulum, the hypostome, partly envelopes laterally the distal cheliceral portions. The dorsal wall, or the roof of the infracapitulum, consists of the long labrum anteriorly possessing its own muscles and the complexly organized epistome posteriorly. The epistome and its posterior projections – the epistomal apodemes serve for origin of the pharyngeal dilators. The wide cap-shaped pharynx goes along the bottom of the infracapitulum and attaches to it. The two sigmoid pieces articulate posteriorly to the epistome and serve for origin of different sets of muscles performing retraction and protraction of the chelicerae and retraction of the gnathosoma. The peritremes are exceedingly long and protrude freely above the chelicerae. The general architecture of the mouthparts of P. pseudotrapelus corresponds more to the anystid than eleutherengonid ground pattern.

Development and characterization of kefiran-gelatin bio-nanocomposites containing Zhumeria majdae essential oil nanoemulsion to use as active food packaging in sponge cakes

Active packaging films based on kefiran-gelatin were developed and characterized using Zhumeria majdae essential oil nanoemulsion (ZMEO-NE) at concentrations of 0 (control), 1, 2 and 3 %. The main compounds of the essential oil (EO) of Zhumeria majdae (ZM) plant were linalool (61.44 %) and camphor (20.67 %). Adding the ZMEO-NE to the films decreased permeability to water vapor (from 7.82 × 10−7 to 4.09 × 10−7 g·m/m2·Pa·h), ultimate tensile strength (from 38.44 to 33.48 MPa), percentage of light transmission, and increased thickness (from 0.085 to 0.121 mm), opacity (from 2.11 to 2.79), and elongation at break (from 19.97 to 34.73 %), and changed color parameters. The establishment of hydrogen bonds between the ZMEO-NE and polymer network was confirmed. The ZMEO-NE decreased the storage modulus and glass transition temperature. Distinct variations in the films' surface morphology and a reduction in the crystalline structure were observed due to the presence of the ZMEO-NE. Elevating the concentration of the ZMEO-NE increased antioxidant capabilities of the films. The films incorporating the ZMEO-NE exhibited notable antibacterial efficacy against Staphylococcus aureus (reductions ≥4 log CFU/cm2) and Escherichia coli (reductions ≥2 log CFU/cm2) bacteria. The films also demonstrated suitable antifungal properties during storage of sponge cakes for 16 days.

Investigation on concentration detection of turbid solution based on hemisphere sample cell and multidimensional spectroscopy

The study developed a hemisphere sample cell and constructed a multidimensional spectroscopy acquisition system to enhance the accuracy of detecting turbid solution with scattering properties. The system simultaneously captures absorption and scattering information from the tested samples. Monte Carlo simulation was employed to model the transmission light intensity distribution data from sample cells of various shapes. It was found that the hemisphere sample cell increases the dimensionality of transmission light intensity information and enables the acquisition of more scattering-related data. Furthermore, 46 samples of intralipid-20% solution with varying concentrations were examined. Models were constructed using partial least squares (PLS) regression with one-dimensional and two-dimensional light intensity distribution data. The results indicate that the model using two-dimensional light intensity distribution data significantly outperforms the model using one-dimensional data, reducing the root mean square error by 39.96% and increasing the correlation coefficient by 0.332%. Experimental results demonstrate that the multidimensional spectroscopic modeling method employing the hemisphere sample cell can significantly enhance the accuracy and speed of detecting chemical composition concentrations in turbid solution.

Silica‐Rich Sol‐Gel Ink for Two‐Photon Direct Laser Writing of Microscale Structures and Optical Elements

AbstractInnovative materials enable two‐photon polymerization for precise additive fabrication of intricate optical components. Existing polymeric inks suffer from poor optical performance due to their high organic content. Silica‐rich sol‐gel ink (75 wt%, under ambient conditions) is presented for high‐precision three‐dimensional (3D) printing of microscale structures and optical devices. A photoinitiator with high‐efficiency nonlinear absorption is introduced to initiate two‐photon polymerization. Utilizing a commercial direct laser writing system, 3D‐printing is demonstrated including the optimization of printing parameters and ink characterization. The optical performance of the printed microscale elements using the new sol‐gel ink surpasses commercially available polymeric inks on key metrics: Printed elements exhibit extremely low surface roughness, 3nm; visible and near‐IR light transmission is greater than 90%; Printed elements present enhanced mechanical and chemical resistance to common organic solvents; Structures exhibit low isotropic shrinkage, <10%; Elements withstand continuous‐wave laser intensities exceeding 7 × 105 W cm−2. Direct writing onto an optical fiber tip with no need for surface functionalization is presented, with the demonstration of a tall waveguide taper (≈1:5 aspect ratio) with low losses and modal crosstalk, and a freestanding photonic lantern mode multiplexer. The new ink can be utilized in a variety of applications and across many materials, requiring compact, durable, and complex optical elements.

Cinnamaldehyde- and nonanal-incorporated polyvinyl alcohol/colloidal silicon dioxide films with synergistic antifungal activities

Biodegradable materials may help solve the problem of environmental pollution caused by conventional synthetic food packaging. Here, various amounts of colloidal silicon dioxide [CSD, 5, 10, and 15 wt% based on polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)] and 1 % SCAN, a 1:1 (v:v) combination of cinnamaldehyde and nonanal, were added to fabricate PVA-based films. Microstructure analyses using atomic force and scanning electron microscopes revealed that the films had uniform CSD dispersion, and the surface roughness rose along with the CSD concentration. The addition of SCAN prevented UV light transmission. In addition, the introduction of CSD enhanced the water-resistance abilities and tensile strengths of the composite films. The PVA/SCAN films exerted remarkable antifungal activities against Aspergillus flavus owing to a synergistic effect between cinnamaldehyde and nonanal. Furthermore, the PVA/SCAN/CSD film, contrasted with the PVA film containing SCAN alone, attenuated the SCAN loss during storage and also continually released SCAN from the film. In peanut preservation, the PVA/SCAN/CSD composite film was superior to the single-element films in antifungal activity, showing decreases of 76.66 % and 85.33 % in the production of conidia and aflatoxin B1, respectively. In conclusion, the PVA/SCAN/CSD composite film with high UV barrier, water-resistance ability, excellent mechanical properties and antifungal activity possesses a promising application potential in food packaging.

On the Performance Limits of Agrivoltaics—From Thermodynamic to Geo‐Meteorological Considerations

As the world strives toward its net‐zero targets, innovative solutions are required to reduce carbon emissions across all industrial sectors. One approach that can reduce emissions from food production is agrivoltaics—photovoltaic devices that enable the dual‐use of land for both agricultural and electrical power‐generating purposes. Optimizing agrivoltaics presents a complex systems‐level challenge requiring a balance between maximizing crop yields and on‐site power generation. This balance necessitates careful consideration of optics (light absorption, reflection, and transmission), thermodynamics, and the efficiency at which light is converted into electricity. Herein, real‐world solar insolation and temperature data are used in combination with a comprehensive device‐level model to determine the annual power generation of agrivoltaics based on different photovoltaic material choices. It is found that organic semiconductor‐based photovoltaics integrated as semitransparent elements of protected cropping environments (advanced greenhouses) have comparable performance to state‐of‐the‐art, inorganic semiconductor‐based photovoltaics like silicon. The results provide a solid technical basis for building full, systems‐level, technoeconomic models that account for crop and location requirements, starting from the undeniable standpoint of thermodynamics and electro‐optical physics.

Recent Advances in Light Penetration Depth for Postharvest Quality Evaluation of Fruits and Vegetables.

Light penetration depth, as a characteristic parameter reflecting light attenuation and transmission in biological tissues, has been applied in nondestructive detection of fruits and vegetables. Recently, with emergence of new optical detection technologies, researchers have begun to explore methods evaluating optical properties of double-layer or even multilayer fruit and vegetable tissues due to the differences between peel and pulp in the chemical composition and physical properties, which has gradually promoted studies on light penetration depth. A series of demonstrated research on light penetration depth could ensure the accuracy of the optical information obtained from each layer of tissue, which is beneficial to enhance detection accuracy for quality assessment of fruits and vegetables. Therefore, the aim of this review is to give detailed outlines about the theory and principle of light penetration depth based on several emerging optical detection technologies and to focus primarily on its applications in the field of quality evaluation of fruits and vegetables, its future applicability in fruits and vegetables and the challenges it may face in the future.

A new dual-thickness semi-transparent beamstop for small-angle X-ray scattering.

An innovative dual-thickness semi-transparent beamstop designed to enhance the performance of small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) experiments is introduced. This design integrates two absorbers of differing thicknesses side by side into a single attenuator, known as a beamstop. Instead of completely stopping the direct beam, it attenuates it, allowing the SAXS detector to measure the transmitted beam through the sample. This approach achieves true synchronization in measuring both scattered and transmitted signals and effectively eliminates higher-order harmonic contributions when determining the transmission light intensity through the sample. This facilitates and optimizes signal detection and background subtraction. This contribution details the theoretical basis and practical implementation of this solution at the SAXS station on the 1W2A beamline at the Beijing Synchrotron Radiation Facility. It also anticipates its application at other SAXS stations, including that at the forthcoming High Energy Photon Source, providing an effective solution for high-precision SAXS experiments.

Jejak Historis Peran Da’i Selaku Tokoh Agama di Masa Covid-19 Pada Masyarakat Cipinang Besar Selatan, Jakarta Timur

This writing describes the historical traces of the role of preachers as religious leaders in preventing the Covid-19 virus in the Cipinang Besar Selatan community, East Jakarta.This research uses a qualitative method with a phenemonological approach. Data collection techniques were obtained from observation, documentation and field interviews with 3 preachers, 2 community members. The occurrence of the Covid -19 pandemic in 2020-2021, some community members are still ignorant of the transmission of the virus. Hoax information on social media creates confusion in the community. The high mortality rate makes psychic disturbances and panic buying of medical devices that have soared in need. Social distancing and lockdown policies make the laws of worship change and religious institutions demand the role of preachers as religious leaders. The role of preachers during the covid-19 pandemic is: 1) as a provider of reliable information to citizens providing information to the public about the importance of maintaining health and using health protocols. 2) Da’i has a role in conveying MUI fatwas related to how to worship and guide the community. 3) Da’i also acts as a protector of the soul, especially for people who are experiencing family loss. Factors that support the role of preachers are the role of residents in Rw 04, Cipinang Besar Selatan urban village who cooperate in spraying disinfectants on mosques, schools, mushollas and residents' homes. The inhibiting factors are the ignorance of some people in Cipinang Besar Selatan who consider the transmission of the Covid-19 virus light and hoax information from social media. Da’i as a religious figure during the Covid-19 pandemic became the spearhead of information facilities for the prevention of the Covid-19 virus in the community in Cipinang Besar Selatan, East Jakarta. Da’i has a historical footprint and is a role model in the community in inviting people to be more vigilant, especially in providing positive information and still using health protocols in worshiping at the mosque during the Covid-19 pandemic.

Design and development of a stand-off Raman brassboard (SDU-RRS) for the spectroscopic study of planetary materials

Raman spectroscopy has emerged as a crucial mineral analysis technique in planetary surface exploration missions. Nonetheless, the inherently low Raman scattering efficiency of planetary silicate materials makes it challenging to extract enough Raman information. Theoretical and experimental studies of the remote Raman scattering properties of planetary materials are also urgent requirements for future lunar and planetary explorations. Here, Shandong University Remote Raman Spectrometer (SDU-RRS) was developed to demonstrate the feasibility of lunar remote Raman technology and conduct preliminary research on remote Raman scattering properties. SDU-RRS utilizes a pulsed 532 nm laser, a non-focal Cassegrain telescope, a volume phase holographic grating, an intensified charge-coupled device, and the time-gating technique to detect weak-signal silicate minerals. The spectral resolution obtained with atomic emission lamps was <4.91 cm−1, and the wavelength accuracy was <1 cm−1, across the spectral range of 241–2430 cm−1. SDU-RRS can detect natural augite within a feldspar-olivine-augite matrix at a concentration of 20 % at ∼1 m under ambient lighting conditions. A series of experiments were conducted to evaluate the influence of measurement conditions and physical matrix effects on acquired Raman signals, either qualitatively or quantitatively, on geological materials. The study indicates that the transmission of Raman-scattered light conforms to Lambert’s cosine law, and a linear correlation exists between Raman intensity and laser power. The study also evaluated the impact of grain size, surface roughness, porosity, and shadow-hiding effects. Reducing grain size decreases Raman intensity and broadens Raman spectra. These characteristics are essential for achieving definitive mineralogical information from granular materials by remote Raman spectroscopy in lunar and planetary explorations.

Self-sustaining antifouling coating for underwater solar cells

If not protected, underwater solar cells are encrusted with biological organisms, such as algae and barnacles, which lower the electrical or operational efficiency and are expensive to remove. We engineered a self-sustaining antifouling coating using ultra-low concentrations of nano-sized, seawater-soluble pigments, specifically cuprous oxide (Cu2O) and zinc oxide (ZnO), combined with an organic booster biocide and a fast-polishing binder material. This coating maintained high levels of visible light transmission for three months in tropical seawater without requiring human intervention, such as mechanical cleaning. Field tests demonstrated the coating's effectiveness in preventing biofouling, while preserving transparency. We anticipate that these self-sustaining antifouling coatings can be applied to thin, transparent, and interchangeable substrates for continual replacement on solar-powered autonomous underwater vehicles or solar cell platforms, thereby ensuring long-term operational efficiency.

Blunted Melatonin Circadian Rhythm in Parkinson's Disease: Express Bewilderment.

Melatonin (MTN) is a neuro-hormone released from the pineal gland. MTN secretion is regulated by different neuronal circuits, including the retinohypothalamic tract and suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), which are affected by light. MTN is neuroprotective in various neurodegenerative diseases, including Parkinson's disease (PD). MTN circulating level is highly blunted in PD. However, the underlying causes were not fully clarified. Thus, the present review aims to discuss the potential causes of blunted MTN levels in PD. Distortion of MTN circadian rhythmicity in PD patients causies extreme daytime sleepiness. The underlying mechanism for blunted MTN response may be due to reduction for light exposure, impairment of retinal light transmission, degeneration of circadian pacemaker and dysautonomia. In conclusion, degeneration of SCN and associated neurodegeneration together with neuroinflammation and activation of NF-κB and NLRP3 inflammasome, induce dysregulation of MTN secretion. Therefore, low serum MTN level reflects PD severity and could be potential biomarkers. Preclinical and clinical studies are suggested to clarify the underlying causes of low MTN in PD.

Precursor-reforming protocol to hierarchical porous g-C3N4 with N defects for remarkable visible-light-driven hydrogen evolution

The photocatalytic activity of g-C3N4 can be enhanced through precise defect engineering. In this study, hierarchical porous g–C3N4–containing cyano groups and N vacancies was synthesized by thermally polymerizing dicyandiamide precursor in a hydrochloric acid solution of magnesium chloride. The resulting structure comprised crosslinked rod-shaped units with a high aspect ratio, facilitating efficient light transmission and absorption within the material. Furthermore, introducing N defects reduced the bandgap and optimized the electronic structure, thereby enhancing light absorption and exposing active sites effectively. The synergistic effects of N defects and the hierarchical porous structure disrupted the original electronic distribution of g-C3N4, leading to directional separation of photogenerated charge carriers and considerably enhancing hydrogen evolution performance. Consequently, the optimized hpCNX-0.05 sample exhibited markedly improved hydrogen evolution rates, achieving 1703.67 μmol g−1 h−1 under visible light irradiation, approximately 3.16 times higher than that of bulk g-C3N4. Overall, this paper presents a promising strategy for synthesizing hierarchical porous g-C3N4 with N defects to achieve highly efficient H2 production.

Self-Cleaning Hydrophobic Coating Composed of Micro/Nano-Imprinted Polydimethylsiloxane with Enhanced Light In-Coupling Capabilities.

In this study, we have optimized optically transparent polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) hydrophobic coating on glass substrates that exhibit self-cleaning as well as enhanced light in-coupling capabilities. Micro/nano textures on the surface of PDMS were introduced through micro/nanoimprinting to achieve light trapping as well as self-cleaning abilities. Comprehensive studies show that the periodic arrangement of the micro/nanopatterned features has enabled enhanced inward transmission of light in the visible range along with superior hydrophobicity. The water contact angle (WCA) measurements on these coatings demonstrated a superior capacity for self-cleaning with a WCA of about 117°. Subsequently, when these transparent and hydrophobic coatings were deposited on commercial silicon solar cells, they showed a 15.8% increment in efficiency due to enhanced light in-coupling with a nanopatterned PDMS coating.

Concept for recycling a small-scale plastic-based bioreactor in a close-loop – Technical approach

To accelerate biotherapeutic development whilst decreasing development time and project cost, small-scale multi-parallel bioreactors have been developed to maximize product yield and quality. These systems feature single-use plastic-based bioreactors for easy connection and fast turnaround. Despite well-known advantages, the perception of plastic and the lack of recycling options are raising concerns in the scientific laboratories’ community. One of the common objections to plastic circularity in life-science is the perceived “downcycling” effect of mechanical recycling. Therefore, the aim of this work was to establish the technical feasibility of a close-loop recycling concept for the main construction material of the small-scale bioreactor. Application tests (cell compatibility and cell culture) were performed and supported by quantitative physical and mechanical tests (tensile, melt flow index, light transmission). Results show that mechanically recycled polycarbonate could be re-used in the same application. A comparative life cycle assessment (LCA), based on a theoretical framework, showed with different scenarios that recycling would have a positive impact on Climate – Carbon – total within the boundaries. Even if the technical feasibility of such a concept is demonstrated through this study, several challenges remain for such a closed-loop recycling concept to be implemented at a commercial scale.