Translational Enhancer Research Articles

Current state and promise of user-centered design to harness explainable AI in clinical decision-support systems for patients with CNS tumors

In neuro-oncology, MR imaging is crucial for obtaining detailed brain images to identify neoplasms, plan treatment, guide surgical intervention, and monitor the tumor's response. Recent AI advances in neuroimaging have promising applications in neuro-oncology, including guiding clinical decisions and improving patient management. However, the lack of clarity on how AI arrives at predictions has hindered its clinical translation. Explainable AI (XAI) methods aim to improve trustworthiness and informativeness, but their success depends on considering end-users’ (clinicians') specific context and preferences. User-Centered Design (UCD) prioritizes user needs in an iterative design process, involving users throughout, providing an opportunity to design XAI systems tailored to clinical neuro-oncology. This review focuses on the intersection of MR imaging interpretation for neuro-oncology patient management, explainable AI for clinical decision support, and user-centered design. We provide a resource that organizes the necessary concepts, including design and evaluation, clinical translation, user experience and efficiency enhancement, and AI for improved clinical outcomes in neuro-oncology patient management. We discuss the importance of multi-disciplinary skills and user-centered design in creating successful neuro-oncology AI systems. We also discuss how explainable AI tools, embedded in a human-centered decision-making process and different from fully automated solutions, can potentially enhance clinician performance. Following UCD principles to build trust, minimize errors and bias, and create adaptable software has the promise of meeting the needs and expectations of healthcare professionals.

Biological Insights from RNA-RNA Interactomes in Bacteria, as Revealed by RIL-seq.

Bacteria reside in constantly changing environments and require rapid and precise adjustments of gene expression to ensure survival. Small regulatory RNAs (sRNAs) are a crucial element that bacteria utilize to achieve this. sRNAs are short RNA molecules that modulate gene expression usually through base-pairing interactions with target RNAs, primarily mRNAs. These interactions can lead to either negative outcomes such as mRNA degradation or translational repression or positive outcomes such as mRNA stabilization or translation enhancement. In recent years, high-throughput approaches such as RIL-seq (RNA interaction by ligation and sequencing) revolutionized the sRNA field by enabling the identification of sRNA targets on a global scale, unveiling intricate sRNA-RNA networks. In this review, we discuss the insights gained from investigating sRNA-RNA networks in well-studied bacterial species as well as in understudied bacterial species. Having a complete understanding of sRNA-mediated regulation is critical for the development of new strategies for controlling bacterial growth and combating bacterial infections.

CDH3-AS1 antisense RNA enhances P-cadherin translation and acts as a tumor suppressor in melanoma.

Thousands of regulatory noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) have been annotated; however, their functions in gene regulation and contributions to cancer formation remain poorly understood. To gain a better understanding of the influence of ncRNAs on gene regulation during melanoma progression, we mapped the landscape of ncRNAs in melanocytes and melanoma cells. Nearly half of deregulated genes in melanoma are ncRNAs, with antisense RNAs (asRNAs) comprising a large portion of deregulated ncRNAs. CDH3-AS1, the most significantly downregulated asRNA, overlaps the CDH3 gene, which encodes P-cadherin, a transmembrane glycoprotein involved in cell adhesion that was also reduced in melanoma. Overexpression of CDH3-AS1 increased cell aggregation and reduced xenograft tumor growth, mimicking the tumor-suppressive effects of CDH3. CDH3-AS1 interacted with CDH3 mRNA and enhanced P-cadherin protein levels. Interestingly, secondary structures at the CDH3 5' end regulated P-cadherin translation, and ribosome profiling revealed that CDH3-AS1 promotes ribosome occupancy at the CDH3 mRNA. Notably, ribosome occupancy was generally increased in mRNAs having cognate asRNA that are complementary to the 5'UTR. Taken together, this study revealed the CDH3-AS1-mediated enhancement of P-cadherin translation, underscoring the broader potential of asRNAs as regulators of protein-coding genes and their role in diseases like melanoma.

Identification of a minimal strong translation enhancer within the 5′-untranslated region of <i>OsMac3</i> mRNA

Identification of a minimal strong translation enhancer within the 5′-untranslated region of <i>OsMac3</i> mRNA

Cellular translational enhancer elements that recruit eukaryotic initiation factor 3.

Translation initiation is a highly regulated process which broadly affects eukaryotic gene expression. Eukaryotic initiation factor 3 (eIF3) is a central player in canonical and alternative pathways for ribosome recruitment. Here we have investigated how direct binding of eIF3 contributes to the large and regulated differences in protein output conferred by different 5'-untranslated regions (5'-UTRs) of cellular mRNAs. Using an unbiased high-throughput approach to determine the affinity of budding yeast eIF3 for native 5'-UTRs from 4,252 genes, we demonstrate that eIF3 binds specifically to a subset of 5'-UTRs that contain a short unstructured binding motif, AMAYAA. eIF3 binding mRNAs have higher ribosome density in growing cells and are preferentially translated under certain stress conditions, supporting the functional relevance of this interaction. Our results reveal a new class of translational enhancer and suggest a mechanism by which changes in core initiation factor activity enact mRNA-specific translation.

Dual-perspective fusion for word translation enhancement

Most Bilingual Lexicon Induction (BLI) methods retrieve word translation pairs by finding the closest target word for a given source word based on cross-lingual word embeddings (WEs). However, we find that solely retrieving translation from the source-to-target perspective leads to some false positive translation pairs, which significantly harm the precision of BLI. To address this problem, we propose a novel and effective method to improve translation pair retrieval in cross-lingual WEs. Specifically, we apply a fusion of both source-side and target-side perspectives throughout the retrieval process to alleviate false positive word pairings that emanate from a single perspective. Moreover, in translation scenarios using Large Language Models (LLMs), we propose fusing the LLMs perspective with the BLI model perspective to enhance LLM’s translation capability. On benchmark datasets of BLI, our proposed method achieves competitive performance compared to existing state-of-the-art (SOTA) methods. It demonstrates effectiveness and robustness across six experimental languages, including similar language pairs and distant language pairs, under both supervised and unsupervised settings.

Transcriptome signatures of the medial prefrontal cortex underlying GABAergic control of resilience to chronic stress exposure.

Analyses of postmortem human brains and preclinical studies of rodents have identified somatostatin (SST)-positive, dendrite-targeting GABAergic interneurons as key elements that regulate the vulnerability to stress-related psychiatric disorders. Conversely, genetically induced disinhibition of SST neurons (induced by Cre-mediated deletion of the γ2 GABAA receptor subunit gene selectively from SST neurons, SSTCre:γ2f/f mice) results in stress resilience. Similarly, chronic chemogenetic activation of SST neurons in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) results in stress resilience but only in male and not in female mice. Here, we used RNA sequencing of the mPFC of SSTCre:γ2f/f mice to characterize the transcriptome changes underlying GABAergic control of stress resilience. We found that stress resilience of male but not female SSTCre:γ2f/f mice is characterized by resilience to chronic stress-induced transcriptome changes in the mPFC. Interestingly, the transcriptome of non-stressed SSTCre:γ2f/f (stress-resilient) male mice resembled that of chronic stress-exposed SSTCre (stress-vulnerable) mice. However, the behavior and the serum corticosterone levels of non-stressed SSTCre:γ2f/f mice showed no signs of physiological stress. Most strikingly, chronic stress exposure of SSTCre:γ2f/f mice was associated with an almost complete reversal of their chronic stress-like transcriptome signature, along with pathway changes suggesting stress-induced enhancement of mRNA translation. Behaviorally, the SSTCre:γ2f/f mice were not only resilient to chronic stress-induced anhedonia - they also showed an inversed, anxiolytic-like behavioral response to chronic stress exposure that mirrored the chronic stress-induced reversal of the chronic stress-like transcriptome signature. We conclude that GABAergic dendritic inhibition by SST neurons exerts bidirectional control over behavioral vulnerability and resilience to chronic stress exposure that is mirrored in bidirectional changes in the expression of putative stress resilience genes, through a sex-specific brain substrate.

DMVMLC-VT: Deep incomplete multi-view multi-label image classification with view translation and pseudo-label enhancement

DMVMLC-VT: Deep incomplete multi-view multi-label image classification with view translation and pseudo-label enhancement

NAT10-mediated mRNA N4-acetylcytidine reprograms serine metabolism to drive leukaemogenesis and stemness in acute myeloid leukaemia

RNA modification has emerged as an important epigenetic mechanism that controls abnormal metabolism and growth in acute myeloid leukaemia (AML). However, the roles of RNA N4-acetylcytidine (ac4C) modification in AML remain elusive. Here, we report that ac4C and its catalytic enzyme NAT10 drive leukaemogenesis and sustain self-renewal of leukaemic stem cells/leukaemia-initiating cells through reprogramming serine metabolism. Mechanistically, NAT10 facilitates exogenous serine uptake and de novo biosynthesis through ac4C-mediated translation enhancement of the serine transporter SLC1A4 and the transcription regulators HOXA9 and MENIN that activate transcription of serine synthesis pathway genes. We further characterize fludarabine as an inhibitor of NAT10 and demonstrate that pharmacological inhibition of NAT10 targets serine metabolic vulnerability, triggering substantial anti-leukaemia effects both in vitro and in vivo. Collectively, our study demonstrates the functional importance of ac4C and NAT10 in metabolism control and leukaemogenesis, providing insights into the potential of targeting NAT10 for AML therapy.

Mechanistic differences in eukaryotic initiation factor requirements for eIF4GI-driven cap-independent translation of structured mRNAs

Protein translation is globally downregulated under stress conditions. Many proteins that are synthesized under stress conditions use a cap-independent translation initiation pathway. A subset of cellular mRNAs that encode for these proteins contain stable secondary structures within their 5’ untranslated region (5’UTR), and initiate cap-independent translation using elements called Cap-Independent Translation Enhancers (CITEs) or Internal Ribosome Entry Sites (IRESs) within their 5’UTRs. The interaction among initiation factors such as eIF4E, eIF4A and eIF4GI, especially in regulating the eIF4F complex during non-canonical translation initiation of different 5’UTR mRNAs, is poorly understood. Here, equilibrium-binding assays, circular dichroism studies and in vitro translation assays were employed to elucidate the recruitment of these initiation factors to the highly structured 5’UTRs of fibroblast-growth factor 9 (FGF-9) and hypoxia inducible factor 1 subunit alpha (HIF-1α) encoding mRNAs. We showed that eIF4A and eIF4E enhanced eIF4GI’s binding affinity to the uncapped 5’UTR of HIF-1α mRNA, inducing conformational changes in the protein/RNA complex. In contrast, these factors have no effect on the binding of eIF4GI to the 5’UTR of FGF-9 mRNA. Recently, Izidoro, M. S. et al. reported that the interaction of 42nt unstructured RNA to human eIF4F complex is dominated by eIF4E and ATP-bound state of eIF4A. Here we show that structured 5’UTR mRNA binding mitigates this requirement. Based on these observations, we describe two possible cap-independent translation mechanisms for FGF-9 and HIF-1α encoding mRNAs employed by cells to mitigate cellular stress conditions.

Salmonid Double-stranded RNA-Dependent Protein Kinase Activates Apoptosis and Inhibits Protein Synthesis.

dsRNA-dependent protein kinase R (PKR) is a key factor of innate immunity. It is involved in translation inhibition, apoptosis, and enhancement of the proinflammatory and IFN responses. However, how these antiviral functions are conserved during evolution remains largely unknown. Overexpression and knockout studies in a Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) cell line were conducted to assess the role of salmonid PKR in the antiviral response. Three distinct mRNA isoforms from a unique pkr gene, named pkr-fl (full length), pkr-ml (medium length) and pkr-sl (short length), were cloned and a pkr-/- clonal fish cell line was developed using CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing. PKR-FL includes an N-terminal dsRNA-binding domain and a C-terminal kinase domain, whereas PKR-ML and PKR-SL display a truncated or absent kinase domain, respectively. PKR-FL is induced during IFNA2 stimulation but not during viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus (VHSV) infection. Overexpression experiments showed that only PKR-FL possesses antiviral functions, including activation of apoptosis and inhibition of de novo protein synthesis. Knockout experiments confirmed that PKR is involved in apoptosis activation during the late stage of VHSV infection. Endogenous PKR also plays a critical role in translation inhibition upon poly(I:C) transfection after IFNA2 treatment. It is, however, not involved in translational arrest during VHSV infection. Extra- and intracellular titrations showed that endogenous PKR does not directly inhibit viral replication but apparently favors virion release into the supernatant, likely by triggering late apoptosis. Altogether, our data confirm that salmonid PKR has conserved molecular functions that VHSV appears to bypass with subversion strategies.

UKRAINIAN PHD STUDENTS' ATTITUDES TOWARD AI LANGUAGE PROCESSING TOOLS IN THE CONTEXT OF ENGLISH FOR ACADEMIC PURPOSES

Mastering academic writing skills in English is essential for future researchers. At present, AI language processing tools provide high-quality, accessible, and fast assistance for translation, editing, and stylistic enhancement of scientific texts. However, their use within English for Academic Purposes (EAP) courses generates mixed reactions among educators and raises ethical concerns. Our study aimed to explore the predominant perceptions of AI language processing tools by PhD students of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine (NASU) from the viewpoint of their integration into the academic English course taught in the first year of their PhD studies. The study involved 52 PhD students from various NASU institutes. They completed a survey with both closed-ended and open-ended questions regarding their previous and expected use of online translators, writing enhancement tools, and ChatGPT for research writing purposes. The results of the survey show that NASU PhD students have extensive experience with online translators, but are less familiar with writing enhancement tools and less certain about their potential use in the future. Almost a third of the respondents expressed reservations about using ChatGPT for academic writing due to academic integrity concerns. Most of the respondents (66%) agree that the basics of ethical use of AI writing and editing tools should be incorporated into EAP courses. One subgroup of the participants (n = 11) took part in a small-scale additional intervention focused on writing enhancement tools. They were asked to apply Grammarly, QuillBot, and ChatGPT to edit their course projects (presentations of the current state of their dissertation research) and compare these tools according to various criteria. The feedback provided by this subgroup indicates that they were most satisfied with the quality of editing provided by ChatGPT but found Grammarly and QuillBot easier to use and more suitable for superficial grammar checks. We found out that the AI tools helped participants achieve improvements primarily in such aspects as the use of articles, punctuation, use of prepositions, and elimination of redundancy. The study has significant pedagogical implications, promoting the wider use of AI tools in the context of teaching English for Academic Purposes and addressing appropriate teaching techniques and methods.

Enhancement of English-Bengali Machine Translation Leveraging Back-Translation

An English-Bengali machine translation (MT) application can convert an English text into a corresponding Bengali translation. To build a better model for this task, we can optimize English-Bengali MT. MT for languages with rich resources, like English-German, started decades ago. However, MT for languages lacking many parallel corpora remains challenging. In our study, we employed back-translation to improve the translation accuracy. With back-translation, we can have a pseudo-parallel corpus, and the generated (pseudo) corpus can be added to the original dataset to obtain an augmented dataset. However, the new data can be regarded as noisy data because they are generated by models that may not be trained very well or not evaluated well, like human translators. Since the original output of a translation model is a probability distribution of candidate words, to make the model more robust, different decoding methods are used, such as beam search, top-k random sampling and random sampling with temperature T, and others. Notably, top-k random sampling and random sampling with temperature T are more commonly used and more optimal decoding methods than the beam search. To this end, our study compares LSTM (Long-Short Term Memory, as a baseline) and Transformer. Our results show that Transformer (BLEU: 27.80 in validation, 1.33 in test) outperforms LSTM (3.62 in validation, 0.00 in test) by a large margin in the English-Bengali translation task. (Evaluating LSTM and Transformer without any augmented data is our baseline study.) We also incorporate two decoding methods, top-k random sampling and random sampling with temperature T, for back-translation that help improve the translation accuracy of the model. The results show that data generated by back-translation without top-k or temperature sampling (“no strategy”) help improve the accuracy (BLEU 38.22, +10.42 on validation, 2.07, +0.74 on test). Specifically, back-translation with top-k sampling is less effective (k=10, BLEU 29.43, +1.83 on validation, 1.36, +0.03 on test), while sampling with a proper value of T, T=0.5 makes the model achieve a higher score (T=0.5, BLEU 35.02, +7.22 on validation, 2.35, +1.02 on test). This implies that in English-Bengali MT, we can augment the training set through back-translation using random sampling with a proper temperature T.

Transcriptome signatures of the medial prefrontal cortex underlying GABAergic control of resilience to chronic stress exposure.

Analyses of postmortem human brains and preclinical studies of rodents have identified somatostatin (SST)-positive interneurons as key elements that regulate the vulnerability to stress-related psychiatric disorders. Conversely, genetically induced disinhibition of SST neurons or brain region-specific chemogenetic activation of SST neurons in mice results in stress resilience. Here, we used RNA sequencing of mice with disinhibited SST neurons to characterize the transcriptome changes underlying GABAergic control of stress resilience. We found that stress resilience of male but not female mice with disinhibited SST neurons is characterized by resilience to chronic stress-induced transcriptome changes in the medial prefrontal cortex. Interestingly, the transcriptome of non-stressed stress-resilient male mice resembled the transcriptome of chronic stress-exposed stress-vulnerable mice. However, the behavior and the serum corticosterone levels of non-stressed stress-resilient mice showed no signs of physiological stress. Most strikingly, chronic stress exposure of stress-resilient mice was associated with an almost complete reversal of their chronic stress-like transcriptome signature, along with pathway changes indicating stress-induced enhancement of mRNA translation. Behaviorally, the mice with disinhibited SST neurons were not only resilient to chronic stress-induced anhedonia - they also showed an inversed anxiolytic-like response to chronic stress exposure that mirrored the chronic stress-induced reversal of the chronic stress-like transcriptome signature. We conclude that GABAergic dendritic inhibition by SST neurons exerts bidirectional control over behavioral vulnerability and resilience to chronic stress exposure that is mirrored in bidirectional changes in expression of putative stress resilience genes, through a sex-specific brain substrate.

Bridging the Gap: Exploring Translation Equivalence and Enhancing Public Sign Translations in Xuzhou's Tourism Spots

Bridging the Gap: Exploring Translation Equivalence and Enhancing Public Sign Translations in Xuzhou's Tourism Spots

Identification and Genome Characterization of a Novel Nege-like Virus Isolated from Aphids (Aphis gossypii) in Yunnan Province.

Negeviruses are insect-specific enveloped RNA viruses that exhibit a wide geographic distribution. A novel nege-like virus, tentatively named Aphis gossypii nege-like virus (AGNLV, GenBank: OR880429.1), was isolated from aphids (Aphis gossypii) in Lijiang City, Yunnan, China. AGNLV has a genome sequence of 9258 nt (excluding the polyA tail) encoding three open reading frames (ORFs). ORF1 (7149 nt) encodes a viral methyltransferase, a viral RNA helicase, and an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase. ORF2 (1422 nt) encodes a DiSB-ORF2_chro domain and ORF3 encodes an SP24 domain. The genome sequence of AGNLV shares the highest nucleotide identity of 60.0% and 59.5% with Wuhan house centipede virus 1 (WHCV1) and Astegopteryx formosana nege-like virus (AFNLV), respectively. Phylogenetic analysis based on the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase shows that AGNLV is clustered with other negeviruses and nege-like viruses discovered in aphids, forming a distinct "unclassified clade". Interestingly, AGNLV only encodes three ORFs, whereas AFNLV and WHCV1 have four ORFs. Structure and transmembrane domain predictions show the presence of eight alpha helices and five transmembrane helices in the AGNLV ORF3. Translational enhancement of the AGNLV 5' UTR was similar to that of the 5' UTR of plant viruses. Our findings provide evidence of the diversity and structure of nege-like viruses and are the first record of such a virus from a member of the genus Aphis.

FTH1 overexpression using a dCasRx translation enhancement system protects the kidney from calcium oxalate crystal-induced injury

The engineered clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)–CRISPR-associated protein (Cas) system is currently widely applied in genetic editing and transcriptional regulation. The catalytically inactivated CasRx (dCasRx) has the ability to selectively focus on the mRNA coding region without disrupting transcription and translation, opening up new avenues for research on RNA modification and protein translation control. This research utilized dCasRx to create a translation-enhancement system for mammals called dCasRx-eIF4GI, which combined eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4G (eIF4GI) to boost translation levels of the target gene by recruiting ribosomes, without affecting mRNA levels, ultimately increasing translation levels of different endogenous proteins. Due to the small size of dCasRx, the dCasRx-eIF4GI translation enhancement system was integrated into a single viral vector, thus optimizing the delivery and transfection efficiency in subsequent applications. Previous studies reported that ferroptosis, mediated by calcium oxalate (CaOx) crystals, significantly promotes stone formation. In order to further validate its developmental potential, it was applied to a kidney stone model in vitro and in vivo. The manipulation of the ferroptosis regulatory gene FTH1 through single-guide RNA (sgRNA) resulted in a notable increase in FTH1 protein levels without affecting its mRNA levels. This ultimately prevented intracellular ferroptosis and protected against cell damage and renal impairment caused by CaOx crystals. Taken together, this study preliminarily validated the effectiveness and application prospects of the dCasRx-eIF4GI translation enhancement system in mammalian cell-based disease models, providing novel insights and a universal tool platform for protein translation research and future therapeutic approaches for nephrolithiasis.

Poly(A)-binding protein promotes VPg-dependent translation of potyvirus through enhanced binding of phosphorylated eIFiso4F and eIFiso4F∙eIF4B.

The phosphorylation of eukaryotic translational initiation factors has been shown to play a significant role in controlling the synthesis of protein. Viral infection, environmental stress, and growth circumstances cause phosphorylation or dephosphorylation of plant initiation factors. Our findings indicate that casein kinase 2 can phosphorylate recombinant wheat eIFiso4E and eIFiso4G generated from E. coli in vitro. For wheat eIFiso4E, Ser-207 was found to be the in vitro phosphorylation site. eIFiso4E lacks an amino acid that can be phosphorylated at the position corresponding to Ser-209, the phosphorylation site in mammalian eIF4E, yet phosphorylation of eIFiso4E has effects on VPg binding affinity that are similar to those of phosphorylation of mammalian eIF4E. The addition of VPg and phosphorylated eIFiso4F to depleted wheat germ extract (WGE) leads to enhancement of translation of both uncapped and capped viral mRNA. The addition of PABP together with eIFiso4Fp and eIF4B to depleted WGE increases both uncapped and capped mRNA translation. However, it exhibits a translational advantage specifically for uncapped mRNA, implying that the phosphorylation of eIFiso4F hinders cap binding while promoting VPg binding, thereby facilitating uncapped translation. These findings indicate TEV virus mediates VPg-dependent translation by engaging a mechanism entailing phosphorylated eIFiso4Fp and PABP. To elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying these observed effects, we studied the impact of PABP and/or eIF4B on the binding of VPg with eIFiso4Fp. The inclusion of PABP and eIF4B with eIFiso4Fp resulted in about 2-fold increase in affinity for VPg (Kd = 24 ± 1.7 nM), as compared to the affinity of eIFiso4Fp alone (Kd = 41.0 ± 3.1 nM). The interactions between VPg and eIFiso4Fp were determined to be both enthalpically and entropically favorable, with the enthalpic contribution accounting for 76-97% of the ΔG at 25°C, indicating a substantial role of hydrogen bonding in enhancing the stability of the complex. The binding of PABP to eIFiso4Fp·4B resulted in a conformational alteration, leading to a significant enhancement in the binding affinity to VPg. These observations suggest PABP enhances the affinity between eIFiso4Fp and VPg, leading to an overall conformational change that provides a stable platform for efficient viral translation.

The phosphorylation of carboxyl-terminal eIF2α by SPA kinases contributes to enhanced translation efficiency during photomorphogenesis

Light triggers an enhancement of global translation during photomorphogenesis in Arabidopsis, but little is known about the underlying mechanisms. The phosphorylation of the α-subunit of eukaryotic initiation factor 2 (eIF2α) at a conserved serine residue in the N-terminus has been shown as an important mechanism for the regulation of protein synthesis in mammalian and yeast cells. However, whether the phosphorylation of this residue in plant eIF2α plays a role in regulation of translation remains elusive. Here, we show that the quadruple mutant of SUPPRESSOR OF PHYA-105 family members (SPA1-SPA4) display repressed translation efficiency after light illumination. Moreover, SPA1 directly phosphorylates the eIF2α C-terminus under light conditions. The C-term-phosphorylated eIF2α promotes translation efficiency and photomorphogenesis, whereas the C-term-unphosphorylated eIF2α results in a decreased translation efficiency. We also demonstrate that the phosphorylated eIF2α enhances ternary complex assembly by promoting its affinity to eIF2β and eIF2γ. This study reveals a unique mechanism by which light promotes translation via SPA1-mediated phosphorylation of the C-terminus of eIF2α in plants.

Enhancement and Facilitation of Translation and Communication with Multilingual Refugees

Multilingualism refers to the ability of an individual or a community to speak or use multiple languages. It can be characterized by the ability to understand, read, write, and communicate in more than one language. A multilingual person does not necessarily mean someone who speaks more than one language perfectly.