Transit-oriented Development Planning Research Articles

The equity implications of TOD in Curitiba

Transit Oriented Development (TOD) projects are being increasingly adopted worldwide as a way to promote the coordination between transport and land-use planning. However, little attention has been given to how TOD projects are associated with socioeconomic and spatial inequalities and its effects on people’s access to economic activities and public services, particularly in the Global South. In this paper we analyze how socio-spatial inequalities have been shaped by transport and land-use planning in Curitiba (Brazil), a city internationally recognized for its TOD planning based on Bus Rapid Transit (BRT). We examine how the spatial organization of the BRT system is associated with the distribution of population densities, socioeconomic groups, and real-estate values and its implications in terms of inequalities of access to employment opportunities and health services. The results show that Curitiba's TOD has had limited influence on population densities, but contributed for the unequal distribution of its benefits, privileging high-income classes and premium real-estate along its main BRT corridors. These effects contribute to push low-income communities to peripheral urban areas with limited accessibility benefits from the transit system. Our findings suggest that Curitiba’s success story should be seen as a cautionary tale about the consequences of TOD planning, which perpetuate the spatial concentration of resources and reinforce inequalities of access to opportunities. The broader lesson of this study is that TOD planning must be constantly evaluated by its socials and environmental impacts, and be guided by mixed housing, and social inclusion to avoid potential consequences in terms of segregation and peripheralization of poorer communities.

Measuring the Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) Levels of Pakistani Megacities for TOD Application: A Case Study of Lahore

The urbanization challenges in the megacities of Pakistan necessitate the implementation of comprehensive sustainable development practices to effectively address contemporary urban issues. Transit-oriented development (TOD) is a globally accepted device in achieving sustainable urban development through transport and land use integration. Evaluating the levels of TOD built in present conditions is essential for productive TOD planning, as it enables the prioritization of development interferences. In this context, we utilized a methodology to evaluate the levels of TOD (TOD-ness) present near transportation nodes through a TOD index. It utilizes ArcGIS and spatial multi-criteria analysis (SMCA) to determine the extent of TOD-supporting qualities around a transit node and identifies areas for potential improvements in transit orientation. The methodology was executed in the megacity of Lahore, situated in Pakistan. A TOD index was computed for areas surrounding the 26 LRT and 27 BRT stations along two existing corridors. The findings suggest that the TOD concept is feasible for Pakistani megacities, and urban decision makers can utilize the TOD index results to facilitate urban- or regional-level planning, funding, and investment policies. Furthermore, these findings offer valuable insights into the transportation obstacles and potential opportunities in similar developing cities in South Asia.

Characteristics and construction of stations under transit-oriented development planning

Characteristics and construction of stations under transit-oriented development planning

An Overview of TOD Level Assessment Around Rail Transit Stations

AbstractBy integrating land use and transportation systems, transit-oriented development (TOD) focuses on transit and land development, development potential, and the balance between transportation and land use. The TOD level assessment not only helps optimize existing TODs but also guides TOD planning. Based on previous literature, methods for assessing TOD around rail transit stations can be roughly divided into three categories: TOD index, the node-place model, and the data envelopment analysis (DEA) model. The TOD index aggregates indicators from different dimensions into a single value for evaluation. The node-place model emphasizes transportation, land use, and the balance between them, as well as expansion factors. And the DEA model is suitable for situations without input indicator weights or consideration of different units of measurement. TOD indicators are the basis of the evaluation, and in both the TOD index and node-place models, indicator weights are mostly determined by using subjective methods. Furthermore, a limited number of studies to date have pre-evaluated the implementation of TOD at rail stations under construction or in planning. This paper aims to assess the level of TOD areas at the rail transit station level, which can help in constructing the evaluation index system, selecting TOD stations, and optimizing them.

Impact of urban morphology on Urban Heat Island in Manchester's transit-oriented development

This study delves into the relationship between urban morphology and the Urban Heat Island (UHI) effect in Manchester's transit-oriented development (TOD). Using various analytical methods, including context analysis, remote sensing, SPSS correlation and the Sankey analysis, the research examines both weekday and weekend data of Manchester Piccadilly and East Didsbury TODs. Remote sensing analysis reveals Manchester Piccadilly TOD as a UHI hotspot due to concentrated human activities and low Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI). East Didsbury TOD, on the other hand, experiences lower UHI intensity because of its lower building and population density. The findings highlight the significant impact of land use and urban morphology on UHI intensity. The paper highlights how TOD-generated commercial and entertainment activities contribute to UHI levels in different locations in Manchester. Factors such as high population density and a higher percentage of workers exacerbate the UHI effect in TODs. The relationship between building heights and UHI challenges the conventional assumption of a positive correlation between floor area ratio (FAR) and UHI. These insights are crucial for TOD planning, emphasising the need to carefully consider land use, population density, and building characteristics in shaping the TOD locations. Implementing measures such as reducing heat emissions from commercial and entertainment activities can lessen the UHI intensity. Providing effective shading in TOD streets and shortening the distance to transit stations can encourage sustainable transportation modes like walking and cycling. Ultimately, this paper enhances understanding of the intricate connections between urban morphology and UHI, facilitating the development of environmentally friendly TOD.

Zoning In on Transit-Oriented Development

Problem, research strategy, and findings Transit-oriented development (TOD) has been widely encouraged as a strategy to limit urban sprawl, increase urban density, and enhance neighborhood diversity. Federal and regional governments have been increasingly promoting such TOD in parallel with light rail transit (LRT) projects to foster sustainable transitions. Little is known, however, about the processes through which municipalities have made changes to existing land use regulations to achieve TOD goals. In this article we trace changes in municipal plans and bylaws surrounding a CA$7 billion LRT in Montréal (Canada) that opened in summer 2023, 7 years after its announcement. Specifically, we analyzed whether changes in municipal bylaws conformed to TOD plans recommended by the metropolitan government while exploring local barriers to zoning reform. Through policy and spatial analysis, we found that only a limited number of municipalities made sufficient bylaw changes between 2016 and 2022 to support TOD plans aimed at implementing mixed-use zoning, increasing urban density, and reducing parking ratios. Through an analysis of rezoning processes, we see an opportunity for improved multilevel cooperation, public engagement activities, and positive communication strategies in the process of building integrated transport and land use systems. Takeaway for practice These findings can aid planners and policymakers in understanding the importance of reforming municipal zoning bylaws and regional approaches to TOD, strengthening collaboration between different levels of government, and engaging in meaningful public consultation practices to foster an integrated transport and land use approach. If LRT projects are to be successful in meeting sustainability goals, greater engagement with land use regulations across multiple scales is needed to facilitate TOD.

Revolutionizing TOD Planning in a Developing Country: An Objective-Weighted Framework for Measuring Nodal TOD Index

Transit-oriented development (TOD) is a planning strategy that combines land use and transportation planning to promote economic, environmental, and social sustainability. While developed cities have embraced TOD, developing cities need to adopt it faster. This has resulted in a need for robust TOD measurement frameworks for developing countries. Furthermore, existing frameworks often use subjective weightage for different TOD indicators, which can lead to human biases. To address these issues, the authors aimed to develop a more robust and objective framework for measuring TOD in developing cities, particularly Dhaka, Bangladesh. The authors used density, diversity, destination accessibility, and design criteria to select eight indicators for measuring TOD. However, a buffer radius of 800 meters was taken for each of the 17 stations to calculate TOD. An objective-weighted spatial multi-criteria analysis (OSMCA) was used to evaluate the framework. The model’s robustness was assessed by analyzing the sensitivity of eight TOD scenarios and identifying hotspot clusters using statistical methods. Additionally, the authors ranked the stations based on the highest TOD score and compared TOD with developed and developing cities to gain planning insights. They proposed three different TOD planning methodologies for nodes that emphasize the importance of design, destination access, and density for (re)development, zoning, and affordable housing policies in Dhaka’s regions. Finally, the study discussed limitations and future research priorities.

A framework to measure transit-oriented development around transit nodes: Case study of a mass rapid transit system in Dhaka, Bangladesh.

Transit-oriented development (TOD) is a tool that aids in achieving sustainable urban development. It promotes economic, environmental, and social sustainability by integrating land use and transportation planning. Many researchers have investigated mass rapid transit (MRT) station regions for TOD in developed cities. However, in a developing city such as Dhaka, measuring node-based TOD (TOD index) during MRT construction has been disregarded in planning future land use. Furthermore, no prior research on quantitative TOD measurement in Dhaka exists. As a result, we developed a framework for both quantitative and spatial node-based TOD measurement based on the four Ds (density, diversity, destination accessibility, and design) of the TOD concept. With 17 stations under construction, MRT 6 was selected as our study area. The TOD index was measured by nine indicators based on the four criteria (4Ds), spatially in the geographic information system (GIS). After calculating the indicators, the TOD index for each station's 800m buffer was estimated using the spatial multi-criteria analysis (SMCA). A sensitivity analysis of four TOD scenarios was performed to check the model's robustness. Additionally, a heatmap of the TOD index for MRT 6 was created for informed planning and policymaking. Furthermore, statistically significant hotspots (both Getis Org Gi* and Anselen Local Moran Statistics) and hotspot clusters were identified. Finally, we illustrate the station-based ranking based on the maximum TOD score. In addition, a detailed spider-web of nine indicators for 17 stations depicts sustainable TOD planning. However, regarding density and diversity, sustainable development and (re)development policies should be implemented not only for MRT 6 but for all Dhaka's TOD regions.

How has Transit Oriented Development Impacted Land Gentrification in London

This study evaluated the impact of Transit Oriented Development (TOD) on land gentrification in London, a city that adopted TOD in its railway network early in the 1920s. It analysed the benefits and drawbacks of TOD and Land Gentrification from the perspectives of economy, society and environment. It analysed the relationship between TOD’s advancement and the level of land gentrification in 33 main districts in London and evaluated the influence of the former on the latter. In addition, it discussed the impacts of gentrification on residents’ health from the aspects of residents’ life expectancy, obesity prevalence and mental trauma(anxiety and depression). It is concluded that:1)TOD can induce different degrees of land gentrification in surrounding areas. 2) TOD and land gentrification mainly affect the social groups with middle or low income. 3) land gentrification will affect people’s physical and mental health, but these are most influential to low - and middle-income population. 4) land gentrification will generally prolong life expectancy for low and middle-income people, but at the same time it will also increase the average level of anxiety and depression among them. The research findings contribute some advice to London and other cities’ governments to design the proper strategies of TOD planning and sustainable development.

Measuring Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) levels: Prioritize potential areas for TOD in Alexandria, Egypt using GIS-Spatial Multi-Criteria based model

In various countries around the world, Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) is getting more attention as one of the most comprehensive planning approaches that can stimulate sustainable development, by encouraging the integration of land-use and transport systems. It is believed that measuring the levels of TOD based on existing potential is a prerequisite for TOD planning, as it facilitates the prioritization of development interventions. In this vein, this study aims to identify and prioritize potential areas for TOD in the City of Alexandria, Egypt. This was done using spatial statistical analysis with combined models of Geographic Information System (GIS) and Spatial Multi-Criteria Analysis (SMCA). The combined models can reach a comprehensive value depicting the existing levels of TOD in an area-wide context, via an index (potential TOD index). Using this index, TOD levels were measured over 6 districts and 109 sub-districts (shyakhat), covering approximately 340 km2. Using nine potential indicators, the scores of the potential TOD index, which indicates the degree of suitability of bus stations as potential TODs, were determined. The results showed that some areas were highly suitable for TOD and had great potential in terms of re-development.

Time-varying and non-linear associations between metro ridership and the built environment

The metro is the backbone of the transport system in many cities. Analyzing the built-environment correlates of metro ridership is crucial for transit-oriented development (TOD) planning and practice. Although numerous studies went along this line, they have rarely considered the non-linearity and temporal heterogeneity in the association of metro ridership with the built environment. After collecting transit smart card data, geo-data, and mobile phone signal data, this study adopts the random forest model to reveal the complex association of hourly metro ridership in November 2019 in Chengdu (China) with the built environment in three times of day (i.e., morning peak, noon off-peak, and evening peak hours). Notably, the contribution of several variables, such as the number of station entrances/overpasses and parking density, has rarely been considered in the literature. The results confirm the presence of non-linearity and temporal heterogeneity in the aforementioned association. Access to the city center and population density are strong predictors of metro ridership in the morning peak hour, whereas employment density, enterprise density, and road density are strong predictors in the evening peak hour. There are great differences in the correlates of metro ridership in different periods. Critical TOD planning parameters are also identified from the partial dependence plots obtained from random forest modeling.

Situating the silence of recreation in transit-oriented development

ABSTRACT Transit-oriented development (TOD) is a prominent planning model that connects sustainable mobilities with land use. While this interface is crucial for sustainable development, it also requires, we argue, that all typesof mobilities are considered. Therefore, this paper scrutinises how recreation and its mobilities have been studied within academic TOD literature. The review reveals a small number of studies of recreation, and by paying attention to their diverse geographical settings the scattered knowledge becomes even more apparent. Thereafter, to illustrate the consequences and situate our reading, we offer a place-based critique of the TOD planning in a Swedish city. The case captures how policies silence local resourcesfor recreation, not least by misinterpreting the modernist planning legacy. Finally, we argue that integrating recreation in the TOD model is as important as it is challenging: it requires a reconsideration of the urban ideal that TOD relies upon.

Associations of land use around rail transit stations with jobs–housing distribution of rail commuters from smart-card data

ABSTRACT Previous studies generally used land use and travel flow to investigate the efficiency of the railway system in Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) cities. Furthermore, to study the association of land use and jobs–housing distribution of commuters, we can find out the potential development of rail commuting. In this research, four railway lines in Wuhan, China, were selected to explore the land use in promoting practical commuting population according to the smart-card data obtained. For land use issues, except the road density and building density, a Normalized Location-Weighted Landscape Index (NLWLI) based on the source – sink theory in landscape ecology was established to assess the jobs–housing land use around rail transit stations. Meanwhile, employment and housing details of commuters around rail transit stations were identified using smart-card data. We found that the generation of commuting flow was affected by building density and the land use of employment in the immediate vicinity of rail transit stations. The distribution of building density and commuters in a mature rail line was roughly a normal distribution. However, due to the inconsistency of land use and jobs – housing distribution around stations, the requirement of the balance of land use and jobs – housing distribution should be reduced at the scale of rail stations in the TOD planning systems. This study is the application of massive smart-card data in the field of urban research. It identifies land use issues that affect rail transit commuting flow, and can help urban planners improve the efficiency of rail transit through planning and design.

Where Are Potential Areas for Transit-Oriented Development (TOD)—Exploring the Demands for Built Environment for TOD Planning

Sustainable urban growth advocates the implementation of transit-oriented development (TOD) to optimize urban spatial structure. The bilateral planning concept of TOD emphasizes the importance of discovering areas with existing TOD features but poor public transit service (potential TOD areas) and further introducing transit connectivity or conducting TOD policy in such areas to facilitate sustainable transportation. However, current studies that are devoted to discovering potential TOD areas remain scarce. In this study, we find that random forest (RF) is an optimal algorithm that can effectively identify potential TOD regions in Hong Kong. We propose an RF-mediated machine learning model (RF-TPI model) and reveal underlying mechanisms of specific indicators. After iteratively learning the typical features of TOD areas in Hong Kong, the developed RF-TPI model shows great capacity to identify potential TOD areas, with satisfactory model performances (accuracy score: 0.89, precision score: 0.81). Further investigation on manifestations of indicators by the SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) interpreter demonstrates the intricate, significant nonlinear and threshold effects of distinct indicators. Conclusively, we highlight that random forest would be a prospective tool for identifying potential TOD areas to aid TOD strategy in urban sustainable endeavors.

Concept of Transit Oriented Development (TOD) and Implementation: Case Study of Pune

India is one of the developing nation and fastest growing economy in the world. India is facing rapid rapid population growth and it rank second in case of population. there is urbanisation going on so people are traveling to city for better life style, result in in stress on basic amenities, life style , employment ,housing and some other basic needs .Transit Oriented Development (TOD) is gaining popularity as a tool to achieve sustainable development in india . Transit oriented Development presents unique opportunities for indian city indian cities cities to meet challenges of the urbanization, inequity, quality of urban realm and climate change. Transit Oriented Development ( TOD ) include mix land use , transportation , street design, employment, green space etc. Transit Oriented Development being scientific and integrated development process between transport planinng and land use can be effective tool for attaining sustainable urbanisation . The objectives of this study are to assess TOD plans and proposals in select Indian cities to reveal their expected benefits (Pune). The TOD regulations in cities are being assessed in terms of transit benefits, land use mix, travel demand management measures and the provision of affordable housing . Based on the case of Pune, a planning framework would be developed to arrive at TOD strategies and measures for other Indian cities . This paper studies the concept of TOD and its advantage, challenges and case study.

Planning as Bargaining

Problem, research strategy, and findings Why would plans have an impact on the built environment when their provisions can be revisited in the context of individual development decisions? I examined the causal impacts of transit-oriented development (TOD) plans in San Francisco (CA) and Seattle (WA) using a mixed methods approach, combining qualitative interviews and a quantitative regression discontinuity design. I found that the Market and Octavia Plan in San Francisco had a substantial impact on development outcomes, increasing densities and reducing parking ratios not just within the plan boundaries but also in adjacent neighborhoods. In Seattle, although parking ratios declined and densities rose over time, it is harder to attribute these trends to the TOD plans studied here, which constituted a small part of the city’s overall planning program. Beyond zoning changes, I identified two mechanisms through which plans exert an impact. First, in a city where development approvals are not by-right, plans can act as an anchor point for bargaining among developers, city staff, and community members. Second, plans can serve as laboratories of innovation, enabling experimentation with new policies that can later be extended to adjacent communities. These findings, however, may not extend to places where zoning provides by-right development permission or where community members are implacably opposed to new development. Takeaway for practice Planners should consider the mechanisms through which plans exert causal impacts. In particular, they should strive for plans that provide a lasting compromise and leave limited incentives for stakeholders to reopen controversial debates in the context of individual project approvals. Planners can also use TOD and similar plans as sites of experimentation and innovation.

Visualizing the potential for transit-oriented development: Insights from an open and interactive planning support tool in Flanders, Belgium

This paper reports on the development trajectory of an empirical tool for transit-oriented development planning in Flanders, Belgium. The tool, StationsRadar, draws on a branch of empirical railway station assessment tools that aim to support transit-oriented development planning processes by visualizing the performance of station locations for a range of transport (‘node’) and land use (‘place’) accessibility indicators. At the root of this paper lies the observation that, while the vast majority of reviewed studies highlight the relevance of the developed tools for planning practice, little work is undertaken to systematically verify that claim. Against this backdrop, we invoke an experiential research strategy as recently proposed in the field of planning research; we organize a series of experiential workshops in which we probe the tool’s added value for regional planning in Flanders. In the process, we specifically work towards a qualitative appraisal of tool ‘usability’ and discuss how our findings bear relevance to the well-rehearsed practice of developing empirical transit-oriented development support tools. Additionally, we elaborate on and illustrate the ramifications of our findings in terms of the subsequent/iterative technical revision of the tool. We conclude this paper by putting forward three major usability recommendations pertaining to: interactive and diversified data visualizations, actor-mobilizing momentum in light of data transparency, and the integration of ‘hard’ and ‘soft’ data in light of crowdsourcing aspirations. We reflect on the broader technical and methodological challenges that come with implementing these in practice.

What the newcomers to transit-oriented development are confronted with? Evidence from Iranian policy and planning

Today, the American model of Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) has gained widespread adoption around the world. Together with pioneer cities in the U.S., Japan, Singapore, and other European countries, there are newcomers to TOD, mainly from the cities located in the developing countries with rapid urbanization and motorization trends, with the purpose of benefiting from TOD advantages in response to the apparently unsustainable traffic-caused challenges. Opportunities, challenges and prerequisites needed for TOD planning seem to have been unclear so far for such nations. Hence, the present study, aims to fill this gap through examining an analytical framework for TOD planning in the case of Iran. The recent policies on TOD also have been initiated at both national and local levels in this country. Directed content analysis of 11 call interviews with Iranian urban professionals and government officials demonstrated that, as with global experiences, adversary physical characteristics and policy background of Iranian cities tremendously preclude joint transport land-use initiatives so that the nature of urban (transport) policies and planning as well as the resulting urban form are both car-oriented. As such, there is a great deal of fundamental works that should be accomplished by the newcomers. The results showed the extent to which the conditions for TOD newcomers are similar which could provide a common framework to the future customized analysis of the individual challenges and planning prerequisites.

Evaluating the Impact of Addis Ababa Light Rail Transit on Public Transit System, Its Efficiency and Eligibility for Transit Oriented Development (TOD)

Following rapid growth Addis Ababa is experiencing traffic congesting, urban sprawl, farmland conversion and environmental degradation. Addis Ababa LRT (AA- RT) has been envisioned to mitigate these problems by connecting four corners of the city to the Central Business District (CBD) however faced with enormous challenges mainly related to lack of finance to sustain operation. As a remedial measure the city Administration is considering Transit Oriented Development (TOD) as an alternative to overcome the challenges as well as fight the negative effect of the problems by reshaping transport and land use pattern in a sustainable manner. Even though TOD concept has helped many cities around the world detail investigation is should be performed and stockholders should be equipped with adequate knowledge in advance TOD planning and implementation. Since TOD concept is entwined with effective, efficient, fast and frequent transit, evaluating the performance of AA-LRT effectiveness is crucial. The objective of this research is to assess the significance of AA-LRT in improving the public transport system by analyzing the modal share among other public transport; analyzing stations efficiency, and analyze operational efficiency that would eventually give understanding about current situation of AA-LRT. The methodology involves collecting secondary data from relevant office and analyze statistically. The result revealed that modal share of AA-LRT among other public transport is 6%; all stations accommodate less number of passengers than designing and operational efficiency decreasing year after year.

A TOD Planning Model Integrating Transport and Land Use in Urban Rail Transit Station Areas

Transit-Oriented Development (TOD), which integrates the Urban Rail Transit (URT) and surrounding land-use planning, is a noteworthy way to achieve sustainable development of URT. Stations with different function orientations have different development goals. However, there are limited studies that focus on the TOD planning with distinct station types. This study aims to propose a method to fill this gap. Commercial and residential development types are two dominating Station-TOD types. In this study, a multi-objective TOD planning model which integrates urban rail transit station, commercial, residential and public land-uses is proposed. The objectives focus on land value, ridership of URT, the compactness and commercial accessibility of land cells. Meanwhile, a two-phase solution algorithm based on genetic algorithm is designed to search for a set of Pareto solutions of alternative land-use plans. Two URT stations in Beijing are taken as case studies. One is Sidaoqiao station as a commercial-dominating type case, the other one is Pingxifu station as a residential-dominating type case. The results show that the optimized plan is more reasonable than the current plan. Both of the cases demonstrate the effectiveness and superiority of the proposed model and algorithm.