Transient Charge Transfer Complex Research Articles

N-Halosuccinimide-CeCl3 Transient Charge-Transfer Complexes as Semi Heterogeneous Photocatalyst in Cyclization of N-Propargylamides.

In this work, we used photoinert anhydrous cerium(III) chloride, to form a transient charge-transfer (CT) complex with NXS (N-bromosuccinimide or NBS and N-iodosuccinimide or NIS) in acetonitrile. These transient CT complexes acted as a semi-heterogeneous photocatalyst. These complexes allowed the Ce(III) ions to absorb light, turning them into strong electron donors that transferred electrons to NXS. This created halide radicals from NXS radical anions, helping to turn N-propargylamides into oxazole aldehydes. Experiments with DMPO and spin-trapping showed that a radical-based mechanism followed a single electron transfer (SET) pathway. Notably, CeCl3 was reused after the reaction without much decomposition, as it was regenerated and separated through simple filtration.

Electron-proton transfer mechanism of excited-state hydrogen transfer in phenol−(NH3)n (n = 5) studied by delayed ionization detected femtosecond time-resolved NIR spectroscopy

The reaction mechanism of a hydrogen transfer reaction has a fundamental importance in wide ranges of chemistry, such as redox reactions and enzymatic reactions. The excited-state hydrogen transfer (ESHT) of phenol–(NH3)n clusters is a benchmark system to study solvation effects on the ESHT reaction mechanism. Recently, we reported that the mechanism of the ESHT reaction changes to electron–proton decoupled transfer for phenol–(NH3)5, from a concerted hydrogen atom transfer for clusters with n < 5, based on observations of picosecond time-resolved NIR/IR spectroscopy (Miyazaki et al., 2018). However, the dynamics of the initial electron-transfer process has not been addressed because the rate is faster than the time-resolution of the picosecond time-resolved measurement. In this study, femtosecond time-resolved NIR spectroscopy was applied to the phenol–(NH3)5 to elucidate the initial electron-transfer process. Time evolutions probed in the range of 6000–9000 cm−1 detected two rise components that can be ascribed to electronic absorptions of the Franck-Condon region of the excitation and the transient charge-transfer complex, respectively. A kinetic analysis determined the time-scale of the initial charge-transfer process to be τCT = 370 ± 55 fs. The fast reaction time supports (almost) a barrier-less charge transfer process predicted by a theoretical calculation that shows solvation-induced strong mixing of ππ*-πσ* states.

Glutaryl‐coenzyme A dehydrogenase from Geobacter metallireducens – interaction with electron transferring flavoprotein and kinetic basis of unidirectional catalysis

Glutaryl-CoA dehydrogenases (GDHs) are FAD containing acyl-CoA dehydrogenases that usually catalyze the dehydrogenation and decarboxylation of glutaryl-CoA to crotonyl-CoA with an electron transferring flavoprotein (ETF) acting as natural electron acceptor. In anaerobic bacteria, GDHs play an important role in the benzoyl-CoA degradation pathway of monocyclic aromatic compounds. In the present study, we identified, purified and characterized the benzoate-induced BamOP as the electron accepting ETF of GDH (BamM) from the Fe(III)-respiring Geobacter metallireducens. The BamOP heterodimer contained FAD and AMP as cofactors. In the absence of an artificial electron acceptor, at pH values above 8, the BamMOP-components catalyzed the expected glutaryl-CoA oxidation to crotonyl-CoA and CO2 ; however, at pH values below 7, the redox-neutral glutaryl-CoA conversion to butyryl-CoA and CO2 became the dominant reaction. This previously unknown, strictly ETF-dependent coupled glutaryl-CoA oxidation/crotonyl-CoA reduction activity was facilitated by an unexpected two-electron transfer between FAD(BamM) and FAD(BamOP) , as well as by the similar redox potentials of the two FAD cofactors in the substrate-bound state. The strict order of electron/proton transfer and C-C-cleavage events including transient charge-transfer complexes did not allow an energetic coupling of electron transfer and decarboxylation. This explains why it was difficult to release the glutaconyl-CoA intermediate from reduced GDH. Moreover, it provides a kinetic rational for the apparent inability of BamM to catalyze the reverse reductive crotonyl-CoA carboxylation, even under thermodynamically favourable conditions. For this reason reductive crotonyl-CoA carboxylation, a key reaction in C2-assimilation via the ethylmalonyl-CoA pathway, is accomplished by a different crotonyl-CoA carboxylase/reductase via a covalent NADPH/ene-adduct.

Theoretical Study of the Mechanism of the Hydride Transfer between Ferredoxin–NADP+Reductase and NADP+: The Role of Tyr303

During photosynthesis, ferredoxin-NADP(+) reductase (FNR) catalyzes the electron transfer from ferredoxin to NADP(+) via its FAD cofactor. The final hydride transfer event between FNR and the nucleotide is a reversible process. Two different transient charge-transfer complexes form prior to and upon hydride transfer, FNR(rd)-NADP(+) and FNR(ox)-NADPH, regardless of the hydride transfer direction. Experimental structures of the FNR(ox):NADP(+) interaction have suggested a series of conformational rearrangements that might contribute to attaining the catalytically competent complex, but to date, no direct experimental information about the structure of this complex is available. Recently, a molecular dynamics (MD) theoretical approach was used to provide a putative organization of the active site that might represent a structure close to the transient catalytically competent interaction of Anabaena FNR with its coenzyme, NADP(+). Using this structure, we performed fully microscopic simulations of the hydride transfer processes between Anabaena FNR(rd)/FNR(ox) and NADP(+)/H, accounting also for the solvation. A dual-level QM/MM hybrid approach was used to describe the potential energy surface of the whole system. MD calculations using the finite-temperature string method combined with the WHAM method provided the potential of mean force for the hydride transfer processes. The results confirmed that the structural model of the reactants evolves to a catalytically competent transition state through very similar free energy barriers for both the forward and reverse reactions, in good agreement with the experimental hydride transfer rate constants reported for this system. This theoretical approach additionally provides subtle structural details of the mechanism in wild-type FNR and provides an explanation why Tyr303 makes possible the photosynthetic reaction, a process that cannot occur when this Tyr is replaced by a Ser.

Role of specific residues in coenzyme binding, charge–transfer complex formation, and catalysis in Anabaena ferredoxin NADP +-reductase

Two transient charge–transfer complexes (CTC) form prior and upon hydride transfer (HT) in the reversible reaction of the FAD-dependent ferredoxin-NADP + reductase (FNR) with NADP +/H, FNR ox-NADPH (CTC-1), and FNR rd-NADP + (CTC-2). Spectral properties of both CTCs, as well as the corresponding interconversion HT rates, are here reported for several Anabaena FNR site-directed mutants. The need for an adequate initial interaction between the 2′P-AMP portion of NADP +/H and FNR that provides subsequent conformational changes leading to CTC formation is further confirmed. Stronger interactions between the isoalloxazine and nicotinamide rings might relate with faster HT processes, but exceptions are found upon distortion of the active centre. Thus, within the analyzed FNR variants, there is no strict correlation between the stability of the transient CTCs formation and the rate of the subsequent HT. Kinetic isotope effects suggest that, while in the WT, vibrational enhanced modulation of the active site contributes to the tunnel probability of HT; complexes of some of the active site mutants with the coenzyme hardly allow the relative movement of isoalloxazine and nicotinamide rings along the HT reaction. The architecture of the WT FNR active site precisely contributes to reduce the stacking probability between the isoalloxazine and nicotinamide rings in the catalytically competent complex, modulating the angle and distance between the N5 of the FAD isoalloxazine and the C4 of the coenzyme nicotinamide to values that ensure efficient HT processes.

Phosphorescence of singlet oxygen and 5,10,15,20-tetrakis(1-methyl-4-pyridinio)porphine: Time and spectral-resolved study

Comparison of photosensitization of singlet oxygen by anionic (TPPS 4) and cationic (TMPyP) water-soluble photosensitizers based on direct time- and spectral-resolved luminescence of both the photosensitizer and singlet oxygen is presented. Concentration dependences of photosensitizer and singlet oxygen emission kinetics were investigated in buffer solutions of wide range of TMPyP and dissolved oxygen concentrations. The trends in TMPyP triplet kinetics were explained in the frame of transient charge-transfer complexes. The results provide new insight into interpretation of our previously published concentration dependences of TPPS 4 triplet states kinetics.

Evidence for a Novel Mechanism of Time-Resolved Flavin Fluorescence Depolarization in Glutathione Reductase

Time-resolved flavin fluorescence anisotropy studies on glutathione reductase (GR) have revealed a remarkable new phenomenon: wild-type GR displays a rapid process of fluorescence depolarization, that is absent in mutant enzymes lacking a nearby tyrosine residue that blocks the NADPH-binding cleft. Fluorescence lifetime data, however, have shown a more rigid active-site structure for wild-type GR than for the tyrosine mutants. These results suggest that the rapid depolarization in wild-type GR originates from an interaction with the flavin-shielding tyrosine, and not from restricted reorientational motion of the flavin. A novel mechanism of fluorescence depolarization is proposed that involves a transient charge-transfer complex between the tyrosine and the light-excited flavin, with a concomitant change in the direction of the emission dipole moment of the flavin. This interaction is likely to result from side-chain relaxation of the tyrosine in the minor fraction of enzyme molecules in which this residue is in an unsuitable position for immediate fluorescence quenching at the moment of excitation. Support for this mechanism is provided by binding studies with NADP + and 2′P-5′ADP-ribose that can intercalate between the flavin and tyrosine and/or block the latter. Fluorescence depolarization analyses as a function of temperature and viscosity confirm the dynamic nature of the process. A comparison with fluorescence depolarization effects in a related flavoenzyme indicates that this mechanism of flavin fluorescence depolarization is more generally applicable.

Catalytic Mechanism of 2-Hydroxybiphenyl 3-Monooxygenase, a Flavoprotein from Pseudomonas azelaica HBP1

2-Hydroxybiphenyl 3-monooxygenase (EC 1.14.13.44) from Pseudomonas azelaica HBP1 is an FAD-dependent aromatic hydroxylase that catalyzes the conversion of 2-hydroxybiphenyl to 2, 3-dihydroxybiphenyl in the presence of NADH and oxygen. The catalytic mechanism of this three-substrate reaction was investigated at 7 degrees C by stopped-flow absorption spectroscopy. Various individual steps associated with catalysis were readily observed at pH 7.5, the optimum pH for enzyme turnover. Anaerobic reduction of the free enzyme by NADH is a biphasic process, most likely reflecting the presence of two distinct enzyme forms. Binding of 2-hydroxybiphenyl stimulated the rate of enzyme reduction by NADH by 2 orders of magnitude. The anaerobic reduction of the enzyme-substrate complex involved the formation of a transient charge-transfer complex between the reduced flavin and NAD(+). A similar transient intermediate was formed when the enzyme was complexed with the substrate analog 2-sec-butylphenol or with the non-substrate effector 2,3-dihydroxybiphenyl. Excess NAD(+) strongly stabilized the charge-transfer complexes but did not give rise to the appearance of any intermediate during the reduction of uncomplexed enzyme. Free reduced 2-hydroxybiphenyl 3-monooxygenase reacted rapidly with oxygen to form oxidized enzyme with no appearance of intermediates during this reaction. In the presence of 2-hydroxybiphenyl, two consecutive spectral intermediates were observed which were assigned to the flavin C(4a)-hydroperoxide and the flavin C(4a)-hydroxide, respectively. No oxygenated flavin intermediates were observed when the enzyme was in complex with 2, 3-dihydroxybiphenyl. Monovalent anions retarded the dehydration of the flavin C(4a)-hydroxide without stabilization of additional intermediates. The kinetic data for 2-hydroxybiphenyl 3-monooxygenase are consistent with a ternary complex mechanism in which the aromatic substrate has strict control in both the reductive and oxidative half-reaction in a way that reactions leading to substrate hydroxylation are favored over those leading to the futile formation of hydrogen peroxide. NAD(+) release from the reduced enzyme-substrate complex is the slowest step in catalysis.

Effect of monovalent anions on the mechanism of phenol hydroxylase.

The mechanism of phenol hydroxylase (EC 1.14.13.7) has been studied by steady state and rapid reaction kinetic techniques. Both techniques give results consistent with the Bi Uni Uni Bi ping-pong mechanism proposed for other flavin-containing aromatic hydroxylases. The enzyme binds phenolic substrate and NADPH in that order, followed by reduction of the flavin and release of NADP+. A transient charge transfer complex between reduced enzyme and NADP+ can be detected. Molecular oxygen then reacts with the reduced enzyme-substrate complex. Two to three flavin-oxygen intermediates can be detected in the oxidative half-reaction depending on the substrate, provided monovalent anions are present. Oxygen transfer is complete with the formation of the second intermediate. Based on its UV absorption spectrum and on the fact that oxygen transfer has taken place, the last of these intermediates is presumably the flavin C(4a)-hydroxide. Monovalent anions are uncompetitive inhibitors of phenol hydroxylase. The mechanistic step most affected is the dehydration of the flavin C(4a)-hydroxide to give oxidized enzyme. Chloride also kinetically stabilizes the blue flavin semiquinone of phenol hydroxylase during photoreduction. These data suggest binding of monovalent anions results in stabilization of a proton on the N(5) position of the flavin.

Metal binding to D-lactate dehydrogenase

The kinetic and spectral properties of native and cobalt-substituted D-lactate dehydrogenase have been compared. Optical and MCD spectra are consistent with high-spin tetrahedral cobalt. The cobalt enzyme is strongly inhibited by D-lactate when oxygen is the electron acceptor. This is probably due to the formation of an abortive complex of reduced enzyme and lactate. Like the native zinc enzyme, the cobalt-substituted enzyme is reduced by substrate in a triphasic fashion involving a transient charge-transfer complex. The kinetics of the cobalt enzyme suggest that the metal is involved in substrate binding and reduction. A second metal-binding site is also described. Evidence is presented to suggest that the flavin cofactor and an essential thiol are involved in this site.

Transient Charge-transfer Complexes with Chlorine Atoms by Pulse Radiolysis of Carbon Tetrachloride Solutions

CHARGE-TRANSFER complexes are known as transient species in reactions of free radicals. This is because of the relatively high electron affinities of some radicals (Table 1). There are reports of solvent effects1 and of the vapour phase halogenation of aromatic compounds2 which show the possible influence of such complexes on reaction mechanisms. So far only very limited proof for the existence of these complexes is available. Charge-transfer complexes with iodine atoms3–5 and with bromine atoms6,7 as electron acceptors have been detected by flash photolysis and pulse radiolysis. This communication reports charge-transfer complexes of chlorine atoms seen during pulse radiolysis of carbon tetrachloride solutions of aromatics. In an earlier communication8 the typical behaviour of very short-lived transients (of the order of µsec) was reported. These have now been identified as charge-transfer complexes of chlorine atoms with aromatic solutes.