Transhumance Research Articles

Tick-borne pathogens and body condition of cattle in smallholder rural livestock production systems in East and West Africa

BackgroundThe majority of the African population lives in rural areas where they heavily depend on crop and livestock production for their livelihoods. Given their socio-economic importance, we initiated a standardized multi-country (Benin, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Nigeria, Ethiopia Tanzania and Uganda) surveillance study to assess the current status of important tick-borne haemoparasites (TBHPs) of cattle.MethodsWe assessed pathogen prevalences (Anaplasma marginale, Anaplasma centrale, Babesia bigemina, Babesia bovis, Ehrlichia ruminantium, and Theileria parva) in the blood of 6447 animals spread over fourteen districts (two districts per country). In addition, we screened for intrinsic (sex, weight, body condition) and extrinsic (husbandry, tick exposure) risk factors as predictors of infections with TBHPs.ResultsThere was a large macro-geographic variation observed in A. marginale, B. bigemina, B. bovis and E. ruminantium prevalences. Most correlated with the co-occurrence of their specific sets of vector-competent ticks. Highest numbers of infected cattle were found in Ghana and Benin, and lowest in Burkina Faso. While T. parva was seldomly found (Uganda only: 3.0%), A. marginale was found in each country with a prevalence of at least 40%. Babesia bovis infected individuals had lower body condition scores. Age (as estimated via body weight) was higher in A. marginale infected cattle, but was negatively correlated with B. bigemina and E. ruminantium prevalences. Ehrlichia ruminantium infection was more often found in males, and A. marginale more often in transhumance farming. High levels of co-infection, especially the combination A. marginale × B. bigemina, were observed in all countries, except for Uganda and Burkina Faso. Babesia bigemina was more or less often observed than expected by chance, when cattle were also co-infected with E. ruminantium or A. marginale, respectively.ConclusionsTick-borne pathogens of cattle are ubiquitous in African’s smallholder cattle production systems. Our standardized study will help a wide range of stakeholders to provide recommendations for TBHP surveillance and prevention in cattle, especially for B. bovis which heavily impacts production and continues its spread over the African continent via the invasive Rhipicephalus microplus tick.Graphical

Thinking about social mutualism in transhumant farming in Croatia

A close focus on the observed interaction type is essential to academic biological writing on mutualism and other symbiotic interactions. Through their observations, scholars note slight shifts in the forms these interactions take, meaning that they are not fixed but can shift according to changes – e.g. in the ecological context. When thinking about human/animal dairy interactions, it is tempting to think about them as purely parasitic. Humans take milk from animals for their own needs and harm the animals. However, borrowing biological approaches that closely focus on the interactions between actors, this article suggests that it is possible to see mutualistic interactions at specific points within dairy relations. In transhumant farming relations in Croatia, we need to account for evidence of mutualism.

The value of transhumance for biodiversity conservation: Vulture foraging in relation to livestock movements

In recent decades, intensive techniques of livestock raising have flourished, which has largely replaced traditional farming practices such as transhumance. These changes may have affected scavengers’ behaviour and ecology, as extensive livestock is a key source of carrion. This study evaluates the spatial responses of avian scavengers to the seasonal movements of transhumant herds in south-eastern Spain. We surveyed the abundance of avian scavengers and ungulates, and analysed the factors affecting the space use by 30 GPS-tracked griffon vultures (Gyps fulvus). Griffons’ foraging activity increased in the pasturelands occupied by transhumant herds, which implied greater vulture abundance at the landscape level during the livestock season. In contrast, facultative scavengers were more abundant without transhumant livestock herds, and the abundance of wild ungulates did not change in relation to livestock presence. We conclude that fostering transhumance and other traditional farming systems, to the detriment of farming intensification, could favour vulture conservation.

Typology of Management of Transhumant Sheep and Goat Farms in Greece: Proposals for the System Continuity

Transhumant farming system is one of the earliest agricultural activities in Greece having an important role in the conservation of biodiversity, the preservation of rural tradition and cohesion of the rural population. The objective of this study was to construct a transhumant farm typology that could be used as a tool by the decision makers or farmers to improve the management of the farms. The required information was obtained from totally 551 Greek transhumant producers. A Principal Component Analysis gave five components related to the production cost of the farms, the intensity of management, the evolution of the extensive character of the system, the type of herds and the future of the system. Using multivariate techniques, a farm typology was established with four categories. The three categories, were characterized by lower production cost and intensification rate while preserved generally a more extensive character. Among them the first group defined as “evolution of the farming system” bred mainly sheep and producers were significantly more adaptive to some kind of innovations, the second group was constituted mainly by large goat herds while the third one by small sheep herds’. The fourth group, defined as the “intensive one” meaning high production cost, intensification rate and working hours per female as well as limitation of time spent grazing. Besides the definition of the character of the transhumance nowadays the results interestingly, highlighted the future of transhumant farms that tends to be doubtful for a number of farmers originated mainly by the last group.

Artvin İli Folklorunda Boğa Güreşi Festivalleri

Amaç: Çalışmada; Artvin ilinin coğrafi ve kültürel özellikleri ile her yaz tekrarlanan yaylacılık faaliyetinin bir ürünü olan ve şehirde folklorik bir halk eğlencesi haline gelen boğa güreşi festivallerini incelemek amaçlandı. Yöntem: Çalışmada, Artvin’de yaşayan 30 kaynak kişi ile görüşüldü. Festivaller hakkında sosyal bilimlerde kullanılan nitel araştırma yöntemlerinden “kaynak kişilerle görüşme tekniği” kullanılarak bilgi alındı. Sözlü, görsel ve bilgi derleme formuyla elde edilen yazılı veriler toplandı. Elde edilen veriler içerik analizi ile değerlendirildi. Bulgular: Çalışmada, yaylacılık faaliyetleri içerisinde boğaların uyumlu bir sürü olmasını sağlamak amacıyla güreştirildiği ve bu güreşler sonucunda boğa güreşi festivallerinin ortaya çıktığı tespit edildi. Bu festivallerle, boğalara kaliteli ve uzun yaşama şansı tanındığı, şehre ekonomik ve sosyolojik açıdan katkı sağlandığı bilgisi elde edildi. Ancak günümüzde festivallerde güreştirilmek için boğa yetiştirildiği ve boğa güreşlerinin spor karşılaşmasına dönüştüğü tespit edildi. Sonuç: Boğa güreşleri türcü yaklaşımdan uzak hayvan kullanım etiği bakış açısıyla değerlendirilmeli ve yöre halkına, insanlara zevk duygusu yaşatmak için boğaların festivallerde güreştirilmelerinin, boğalar için korku, acı ve öfke hislerini içeren bir uygulama olduğunun bilgisi verilmelidir. Festivallerde boğa güreşi müsabakalarının Hayvanları Koruma Kanuna göre kaldırılması ve yazın aynı yaylada bulunacak boğaların gerekli tüm tedbirler alınarak birbirlerine alıştırılması gerektiği söylenebilir.

African animal trypanosomosis in cattle in Bnin: A review

African animal trypanosomosis is a disease transmitted by tsetse flies and tabanid to domestic mammals which seriously affects their health status and considerably reduces their productivity. This study proposes to make a synthesis on the bovine trypanosomosis and the various works undertaken in Benin country from 1960 to 2018. After general information on bovine trypanosomosis, the various vectorial agents responsible for the disease are explained. The inventory of fixtures of the pathology since 1960 to 2018 followed by the measures and means of control will be detailed. Then, a point on the state of the trypanosome’s chemotherapy -resistance facing circulating drug and of the approaches of solutions and the convincing alternatives will be developed. Finally, a study of the impact of transhumance transmission in the maintenance of bovine trypanosomosis supported by the management of conflicts is exposed. The chemotherapy-resistance of the trypanosomes being a true problem affecting the control of the disease, then it is urgent to find endogenous solutions that are reliable through the valorization of medicinal herbs for an effective control of bovine trypanosomosis in Benin. The present work opens a perspective on the definition of innovative alternatives to fight against the bovine trypanosomosis as well as tackle the chemotherapy-resistance against circulating Trypanosoma spp. Key words: Alternatives, chemotherapy, drug, resistance, Trypanosoma spp, Benin.

Conectividad en la Edad del Bronce del occidente de la península ibérica. Examinando la relación entre sitios y vías pecuarias mediante SIG

Este artículo evalúa de forma crítica una vieja hipótesis de la Prehistoria de la península ibérica que ha quedado sin refutar: la que relaciona los sitios de Cogotas I (1850-1100 cal AC) con la trashumancia. Se propone un experimento en una amplia franja del occidente ibérico coincidente con la denominada Vía de la Plata: la medición con SIG de la distancia lineal entre 176 sitios de Cogotas I y las vías pecuarias, concebidas como síntomas materiales de hábitos inveterados. Los resultados, estadísticamente significativos con matices regionales, indican que casi un tercio de los casos –el 27,3 %– se encuentran a menos de 500 m. Evitamos relacionar esa proximidad con la trashumancia, la subordinación centro-periferia o el tráfico de objetos elitistas. Entendemos tal pauta como indicio del interés de los grupos estudiados, entre otras decisiones locacionales, por participar en la circulación de personas, animales y cargas, conforme al modelo de comunidades políticas paritarias (peer polity interaction).

Migration and transhumance: thank you Brussels!

Migration and transhumance: thank you Brussels!

The transhumance perception: a macro-regional phenomenon in the Mediterranean basin. A comparison between verbal descriptions of the tradition in Calabria and Molise (Southern Italy)

The contribution aims to analyze the phenomenon of transhumance by comparing the traditions of Calabria and Molise (southern Italy), dwelling in particular on the witnesses of a Calabrian shepherd and the son of a shepherd from Molise. The methodology, used in the context of the geography of perception, is the collection of some verbal descriptions of the two pastors, oriented through some thematic declinations: 1) the age with which the breeder began to work as a transhumant shepherd; 2) the reasons why some animals carried or did not carry the bell; 3) the movements of the animals guided by the instinct or forced by shepherds; 4) the duration of the transhumance; 5) the reasons why the transhumance was practiced; 6) the best period to carry out the transhumance; 7) the advices of the transhumant shepherd for the possible development of the transhumance by the new generations. This comparison reveals interesting analogies and differences between the tradition of Calabrian and Molise transhumant pastoralism, as well as important reflections on the future of this ancient practice. References Bailly, A.S. (1975). L’organisation urbaine. In Theories et. Modeles. Paris, FR: Centre de Recherche d’Urbanisme. Bernardo, M., De Pascale, F. (2014). Attraverso i sentieri della transumanza. Stringhe, 1, 1, 53-63. Bernardo, M., De Pascale, F. (2017). Le vie della transumanza in Calabria: un itinerario culturale percepito tra geostoria, economia e letteratura. Camigliatello Silano, IT: La Dea Editori. Bianchi, E. (1987). Comportamento e percezione dello spazio ambientale. Dalla Behavioral Revolution al Paradigma Umanistico. In: G. Corna Pellegrini (Ed.). Aspetti e Problemi Della Geografia. Settimo Milanese, IT: Marzorati, Italy, 545–598. Brunet, R. (1974). Espace, perception et. Comportement. L’Espace Geographique, 3, 189-204. Brusa, C. (1978). Geografia e Percezione Dell’ambiente: Varese Vista Dagli Operatori Dell’ente Pubblico Locale, Giappichelli: Turin, Italy. Cesa-Bianchi, M. (1980). Ambiente e Percezione: Ricerca Geografica e Percezione Dell’ambiente; R. Geipel, M. Cesa-Bianchi (Eds.). Milan, IT: Unicopli, Italy, 27-33. Ciasca, R. (1928). Storia delle bonifiche del Regno di Napoli. Bari, IT: Laterza. Clementi, A. (1990). Presentazione. In: Giornate internazionali di studio sulla transumanza. Atti del Convegno L’Aquila, Sulmona, Campobasso, Foggia, 4-5-6-7 novembre 1984, L’Aquila, IT: Deputazione Abruzzese di Storia Patria, pp. 7-8. Consoli, A. (2008). Indagine sullo stato dell’arte dei progetti di educazione alla montagna. In: A. Ciaschi (Ed.), La montagna a scuola: cartografia, vocabolario, web, Rome, IT, Carocci, 75-80. D’Annunzio, G. (2013). Alcyone, A. Andreoli, N. Lorenzini (Eds.), Milan, IT: e-Meridiani Mondadori, (original work published 1904). De Pascale, F. (2018). The proposal of an ecomuseum of transhumance as a stratey for overcoming barriers in the internal areas of Calabria: the case study of the Sila. In: M. Fuschi (Ed.), Barriere/ Barriers, Societa di Studi Geografici. Memorie Geografiche, 16, 801-808. Downs, R.M. (1970). Geographic space perception: Past approaches and future prospects. Prog. Geogr. 2, 65-108. Fremont, A. (1976). La Region Espace Vecu; Paris, FR: PUF. Kroton, G.A.L. (2012). Sui sentieri della transumanza. Dal Marchesato alla Sila Grande. Un itinerario nella storia. Crotone, IT: G.A.L. Kroton. Givigliano, G. (1990). Aspetti e problemi della transumanza in Calabria. In: Giornate internazionali di studio sulla transumanza. Atti del Convegno L’Aquila, Sulmona, Campobasso, Foggia, 4-5-6-7 novembre 1984, L’Aquila, IT: Deputazione Abruzzese di Storia Patria, 129-155. Ivone, D. (2002). La Transumanza. Pastori, greggi, tratturi. Turin, IT: Giappichelli Editore. Lando, F. (2016). La geografia della percezione. Origini e fondamenti epistemologici. Riv. Geogr. Ital. 123, 141-162. Lovigi, S. (2013). Immagini di Padova. Analisi delle percezioni della citta e dei suoi quartieri in alunni di classi terza e quinta della scuola primaria, Padua, IT: Cleup. Noce, T. (2012). Sui sentieri della transumanza: un percorso didattico per una nuova pedagogia dell’ambiente (Unpublished master’s thesis), University of Calabria, Rende [IT]. Pasquinucci, M. (1990). La Transumanza e il paesaggio. In: Giornate internazionali di studio sulla transumanza. Atti del Convegno L’Aquila, Sulmona, Campobasso, Foggia, 4-5-6-7 novembre 1984, L’Aquila, IT: Deputazione Abruzzese di Storia Patria, 29-38. Pavia, R. (2005). Le paure dell’urbanistica, Rome, IT: Meltemi Editore. Perussia, F. (1980a). La percezione dell’ambiente: una rassegna psicologica. In: R. Geipel, M. Cesa- Bianchi (Eds.), Ricerca geografica e percezione dell’ambiente. Milano, IT: Unicopli, 55-67. Perussia, F. (Eds.) (1980b). Immagini ambientali, Milan, IT: Unicopli. Pirolo, F. (2005). La transumanza in Basilicata in eta moderna. Tratturi, masserie, reintegre. Naples: Editoriale Scientifica, IT.

El artista de variedades en el Buenos Aires de principios del siglo XX

El presente trabajo sostiene la hipótesis de que las características mismas del varieté, la falta de amparo legal que propiciaba la explotación femenina e infantil, la trashumancia que derivaba en imposibilidad de establecer vínculos estables con la sociedad de recepción y de elemental escolaridad en el caso de los menores, el desconocimiento del idioma en los extranjeros, entre otras muchas condiciones, colocaron al artista de variedades de la primera mitad del siglo XX en una situación de vulnerabilidad extrema, lo alejaron de la posibilidad de concretar una organización aún básica y lo vincularon a un circuito de marginalidad social y legal que muy frecuentemente involucraba explotación laboral, prostitución, trata de blancas, abusos y otros delitos penales, ante la mirada al menos indiferente y muchas veces abiertamente hostil de la sociedad de su tiempo que –paradójicamente– conformaba su público.

Impacts of anthropogenic pressures on wildlife in the northern sector of the National Park of Mbam and Djerem, Adamaou Cameroon

The study on the assessment of the scale of human pressure on wildlife in the Mbam and Djerem National Park was conducted between December 2012 and April 2013. This evaluation has relied on a review of seven reports ecological monitoring produced by Wildlife Conservation Society between 2006 and 2012, and direct observations. Results show that: the main causes of the reduction of wildlife are poaching (60.5%), transhumance (16.5%), illegal fishing (10.9%) and uncontrolled bush fires (1.5%). In terms of relative abundance of human activities, it was found that the number of human indexes droped from 232 in 2006 to 109 in 2009 and 109 to 82 in 2012 as well as wildlife or encounter rate per kilometer species activity signs indicated a high relative abundance of elephants has increased from 1,008 in 2006 to 2.18 in 2009 and 2.18 to 5.80 in 2012 followed by buffalo and hocheur general, activities anthropogenic influences negatively but very weak wildlife (r = -0.06). This influence is positive and is higher among Loxodonta africana (r = 0.9), Pan troglodytes (r = 0.6), Greater spot-nosed monkey (r = 0.4), low in Syncerus caffer (r = 0.1) and Red river hog (r = 0.05) between 2006 and 2012, a reduction of human activities 64.7% was observed. To reduce the impact of human activities on wildlife, it is desirable to strengthen the monitoring of livestock in the park and the fight against poaching device. Key words: Human activities, Wildlife, Mbam and Djerem National Park, ecological monitoring.

On the study, modernisation, support and promotion of transhumance, through a dedicated web-GIS

On the study, modernisation, support and promotion of transhumance, through a dedicated web-GIS

The Political Ecology of Peasant-Herder Conflict in Mvomero District, Tanzania

It is worthwhile to address the peasant-herder conflict in Tanzania because the increases over time. This study seek to contribute to the growing literature in herder-peasant interactions in most Sub-Saharan African countries by using it as a response to facilitate proper use of natural resources in these countries. The arrival of pastoral societies in Morogoro in 1990s was not a problem because there was a large of uninhabited land. However, population increase of both peasants and herders, land grabbing and large scale investments in the area had compressed the people into a small area of which could not hold them extensively and peacefully. This paper investigated the causes, impacts and resolution of peasant-herder conflict in the study area. Findings from questionnaire and field interviews show that there is increased cases of killing among the two groups. Each group claim to have right over land utilization in the area. Therefore, there is a need to harmonize policies especially those with cross cutting interests, review some village land use plans, creation of awareness toward herders to abandon their traditional transhumance nature of livestock keeping and adopt the sedentary livestock keeping which is economic viable and environmental friendly. Key Words: Political ecology, Peasant-Header Conflict, Crops Damage, Confiscation of Herds, Mvomero     DistrictÂ

Antiquated Patterns of the Transhumant Gaddi Abode: Looking from an Ethnographers' Eyes

Antiquated Patterns of the Transhumant Gaddi Abode: Looking from an Ethnographers' Eyes

Transhumance Farming in Swiss Mountains: Adaptation to a Changing Environment

Families living on transhumance farms (Stufenbetriebe) in the Swiss Alps may move with their cattle up to 12 times a year between as many as 4 altitudinal levels. Transhumance farms have come under increasing political pressure to improve their economic performance, which has been hampered by a number of factors, such as rising infrastructure costs for meeting animal welfare regulations at multiple farm locations, lack of access roads, and restrictions on the creation of new transhumance farms. Little is known about transhumant farming practices and the role they play in mountain regions. In this exploratory anthropological study, we interviewed 39 transhumance farm family members in 7 Swiss cantons about their history, present situation, and visions of the future. A special focus was the risk perceptions upon which decisions and management strategies are based. The semistructured interviews were analyzed according to principles of content analysis and risk network analysis, with a focus on social, cultural, economic, and political risks as well as natural hazards. The results show that many transhumance farms are undergoing a process of adaptation to a changing social, political, economic, environmental, and cultural context. Transhumance farming has allowed individuals to survive as mountain farmers despite often difficult conditions. This study offers important insights into the risk perceptions and strategies of adaptation to ongoing changes developed by the families on these farms.

Seroprevalence and risk factors associated with within-flock transmission of Leptospira interrogans in transhumant farming systems in Mexico.

A number of recent reports emphasize the risk of zoonotic diseases and the high degree of prevalence of asymptomatic animals infected with Leptospira interrogans. This report sought to assess the prevalence of antibodies to certain serovars of L. interrogans, and to describe the association between seropositivity and risk factors associated with within-flock transmission in a mountainous region of Mexico. Overall seroprevalence to L. interrogans was 54·5% (95% confidence interval 48·3-60·7); the most frequent serovar was Icterohaemorrhagiae. The accumulation of placentas and fetuses at a site close to lambing paddocks can play a significant role as a risk factor for within-flock transmission of L. interrogans in transhumant farming systems in the municipality of Xalatlaco. The high prevalence of L. interrogans antibodies supports the hypothesis that natural foci of this zoonosis are present in sheep flocks in this area. These findings emphasize the need for planning and implementation of control programmes for ovine leptospirosis in Mexico and elsewhere.

L'élevage agropastoral de la steppe algérienne dans la tourmente : enquêtes et perspectives de développement

Dans la steppe algérienne, en cinquante ans, la population, la superficie cultivée et les effectifs ovins et caprins ont triplé ; les importations de céréales fourragères ont énormément augmenté ; la double transhumance, au Sahara en hiver et dans le Tell en été, a beaucoup régressé et les parcours, surchargés et surpâturés, ont été très dégradés. Restaurer les parcours, développer l'irrigation et les ressources fourragères locales, réguler les prix et les approvisionnements en céréales est, aujourd’hui, plus que jamais possible et nécessaire pour relancer durablement l’élevage dans la steppe.

Morphological characterization of Achai cattle in sedentary and transhumant systems in Pakistan

Achai is an as yet undocumented but well-adapted cattle breed of the Hindu Kush Mountains of northern Pakistan, which is reared under sedentary farming system (SFS) and transhumant farming system (TFS). This paper compares the morphological (physical and morphometric) characteristics of this cattle breed under both farming systems to know the effect of these styles of management. Data were collected from 108 adult females and 108 males in SFS and 108 females and 36 males in TFS on physical characteristics (colour of the coat, horns, eyelashes, muzzle, hoof, switch) and morphometric measurements – i.e. heart girth, body length, height at withers, height at hipbone, face length, horn length, horn circumference, ear (length and width), neck length, dewlap length, chine length, loin length, rump (length and width), length below knee, hoof circumference, tail and switch length. Results showed that farming systems significantly affect most of the morphological characteristics of both sexes, particularly the morphometric measurements with tall and leggy conformation for TFS cows and bulls. This indicates an adaptation to long distance transhumance and mountain terrain grazing. It can be concluded that the Achai has the potential to adapt to the requirements of specific farming systems. There is hence a need for the conservation of its adaptive traits in both farming systems.

Effect of management on reproductive performances of the Achai cattle in the Hindu Kush (Northern Pakistan)

This study evaluates the effect of management on the undocumented Achai cattle reproductive performance in transhumant farming systems (TFS) and in sedentary farming systems (SFS) in northwestern Pakistan. Data were collected from 172 households in TFS and 270 households in SFS to analyze the effect of farming systems, parity, and calving season on key reproductive traits. The results show that farming systems significantly affect pubertal age, while parity has no significant effect on any of the key traits. The calving season significantly affects the postpartum anoestrus interval in TFS only. More than 50% of the cows in both systems have postpartum anoestrus intervals and calving intervals within the recommended values for cows in tropical countries. Achai cows have high first-service conception rates (70% and 71% for TFS and SFS, respectively) and require a relatively small number of services per conception (1.53 ± 0.06 and 1.48 ± 0.05 SE for TFS and SFS, respectively). This local breed thus warrants conservation under both farming systems.

Anthrax in Togo: Spatial Risk in the Savannah Region

During the dry season in northern Togo, herds are led in search of water sources and natural pasture. These areas are often unfamiliar to the herdsmen and can also pose health risks to the herd. Additionally, migrating animals can spread diseases to other herds. The Savannah Region, in northern of Togo, has experienced recurrent anthrax outbreaks between 2007-2009. In this context, a study was undertaken from June-October 2009 regarding the spatial risk of anthrax in the Savannah Region of northern Togo. The principal objective was to identify the location of anthrax outbreaks in relation to the corridors along which animal movements occur, providing guidance about which areas should be avoided for grazing. The methodological approach was based on interviews of 147 people across 5 categories: 25 veterinarians from the public and private sectors, 84 livestock owners and herdsmen, 24 abattoirs, 3 transhumant herdsman originated from other countries, and 11 representatives of the human health sector. Data collection involved interviews using a pre-designed questionnaire. The results showed that: of the 35 animal outbreak sites of 1997-2008 identified during the interviews, 80% were first detected in the hot, humid period from March-June. Furthermore, 91% of the 35 outbreaks sites of 1997-2008 were situated along the actual transhumant corridors used by herdsmen, which differ from the officially designated corridors and are generally poorly marked out. Consequently, it is possible that livestock movements are a factor in the spread of anthrax and that there is a real and important risk posed by grazing contaminated pasture. The identified outbreak sites should be forbidden for grazing within the context of the regional anthrax control program.