Transhumance System Research Articles

The yak grazing system on the Qinghai-Tibetan plateau and its status

Yaks are a multifunctional and dominant livestock species on the Qinghai-Tibetan plateau. The yak grazing system is a traditional transhumance system. Research is focussed on both understanding and improving the system. Development of local economies and the use of new knowledge from yak research and modern technology are improving the system. However, the Qinghai-Tibetan plateau ecosystem is becoming dysfunctional through adverse climate sequences, over-population and over-grazing. The Chinese Government has implemented regional projects to address these degradation problems. Several policies have recently been introduced to improve yak grazing management. This paper reviews current knowledge on the system and the options for improving and optimising the system.

Economic opportunity survey of small scale dairy farms of the north west province of Cameroon

An Economic Opportunity Survey was conducted on dairy farms in the North West Province of Cameroon. Results showed that median (range) number of cows in milk per farm was zero point six (0-4) and six (3-12) in the zero grazing and transhumance systems, respectively. Medians (range) of three (0-24) and four (3-10) litres of milk were sold per farm per day, corresponding to 30% and 60% of milk produced. 24% and 13% of total cattle per herd were milking cows in the zero grazing and transhumance systems respectively. Median milk production per cow on one day was two (0-25) and two (1-3) litres. Median calf production interval was 14.5 (12-25) and. 21.5 (14-29) months. More milk produced per day represented the best economic opportunity in both systems while reduced age at first calving and longer lactation length were the next in both. Wastage of milk through spoilage from poor hygiene and lack of cooling was a major problem. Holstein cows, which were in the zero grazing system, had unexpectedly short lactations. Constraints identified led to the setting up of interventions of training and advice for farmers and of better nutrition.

Impact of Communication Infrastructure Development on Livestock Density and Forage Use under the Transhumance System in Northern Pakistan

Construction of the Karakoram Highway (KKH) connecting Pakistan with China has brought about changes in the economic, social and cultural systems of the Northern Areas of Pakistan. The authors examined the impacts of this development on pasture resource use by comparing a transect of villages connected to the KKH with a transect still relatively remote within the Gilgit–Ghizer region. Patterns of livestock density and forage use were shown to differ between individual villages, but no direct impacts of the KKH communication infrastructure development were found. It is hypothesized that, although regional communication infrastructure changes facilitate many other social changes, their impacts on livestock systems are less direct than is commonly assumed, due to individual differences in rates of social change between villages, leading to a diversity of change within the livestock systems in the region.

Experience, Movement and Mobility: Komi Reindeer Herders' Perception of the Environment

Abstract On the basis of fieldwork among Komi reindeer herders in the north of Russia, the author discusses the concepts of movement and mobility. In the first part, he describes reindeer herders' migrations from an outsider's point of view, which reflects the conventional academic approach to the theme of pastoralists' mobility. Komi reindeer husbandry may be described as a transhumant system with protracted linear migrations. In the second part, he tries to look beyond these etic categories and gives an account of their movements from an emic perspective. Moving through the forests and tundra is inextricably connected with a sense of temporality, with the seasons and the weather, with events and memories, and with experience, learning and 'enskilment' (Ingold 2000). This emic perspective is discussed in the frame of Tim Ingold's thoughts about 'the perception of the environment' and other phenomenological approaches. The author differentiates between mobility as the potential of movement, and movement as mobility 'acted out'. The etic (outsiders') perspective can explain pastoral migrations as a potential (mobility), yet it cannot fully account for the pastoralists' being in action (movement).

Seasonal changes in pasture biomass, production and offtake under the transhumance system in northern Pakistan

An understanding of seasonal changes in pasture biomass, production and offtake of different range types is fundamentally important for the efficient management of livestock grazing. However, few studies have quantified these changes for transhumance systems, despite the fact that transhumance is still the main form of livestock management in several regions of the world and is often critical for the livelihoods of the people. One such area is the Northern Areas of Pakistan, where six villages and their pastures were selected for study. Pastures were categorized within foothill, dry temperate and alpine range types, and seasonal biomass, production and offtake of the vegetation was estimated by clipping paired caged and uncaged quadrats. The alpine range type had by far the highest biomass and offtake; the foothill and dry temperate range types were much more sparsely vegetated. Although alpine pastures were heavily used, particularly in spring, there was no evidence for consistent over-utilization of pasture resources. Within the dry temperate range type, production was highest during spring but significantly under-used. This indicates a potential for increased use of dry temperate pastures during spring, an important period both for early recovery of livestock body condition after winter and to reduce the heavy pressure on the alpine pastures at this time.

Quality differences in cheeses produced by lowland and highland units of the Alpine transhumant system

RiassuntoDifferenze qualitative di formaggi prodotti a fondovalle e in alpeggio nell’ambito del sistema transumante alpino. I sistemi transumanti alpini utilizzano foraggi di fondovalle d’inverno e pascoli d’estate. Il latte prodotto da 2 gruppi omogenei di 25 bovine Pezzate Rosse Italiane, allevate rispettivamente in fondovalle e in alpeggio, è stato caseificato separatamente per 3 giorni consecutivi nel mese di luglio. Sui formaggi, stagionati per 3 mesi, sono state condotte analisi chimiche, reologiche, sensoriali e dei composti aromatici. I risultati hanno evidenziato differenze tra i due tipi di formaggio in termini di composizione chimica, caratteristiche sensoriali e componenti aromatiche.

Body measurements in Bergamasca sheep

To investigate the evolution of Bergamasca sheep breed in the last two decades body measurements recently taken were compared with the breed standard (BMST) and with those from a previous study conducted in 1984 (BM84). Height at withers (HW), height at rump (HR), depth of body (DB), width at shoulders (WS), hearth girth (HG), anterior pelvic width (APW), middle pelvic width (MPW), body length (BL), distance from the front to the back margin (HOCK1) and from the lateral to the medial margin (HOCK2) of hock were measured on 495 Bergamasca sheep (466 ewes and 29 rams) from 14 flocks (seven sedentary and seven transhumance systems). Animals were grouped into 12–24 months and >24 months of age for the study. In general, a reduction of all body dimensions was observed compared to BMST and the largest decreases were for BL, APW and MPW. Compared to BM84, sheep older than 24 months were wider, with a slight increase in DB, HG and WS. Variations among these body measurements suggest that the breed standard need to be updated. Husbandry system (sedentary and transhumance) and age divided into 10 age classes of 6 months were also investigated as possible sources of variation for body measurements in females. Ewes raised in a transhumance system were taller, longer and showed a wider hock. On the contrary, ewes raised in a sedentary system were wider at chest and rump. Body measurements varied with increasing age: the smallest were for 12–18 months old ewes, whereas little variation was observed after 18 months of age. A factor analysis was used to study the interdependence among body measurements of young and adult sheep in each husbandry system. Two and four factors were retained in young and adult sheep in a sedentary system, whereas for both age groups of sheep in a transhumance system three factors were retained. In general, with the exception of young sheep in a sedentary system, the first and second factor showed largest positive association between variables and factors for measures concerning the width and height and the third was associated with body development. Since variation in body width was not associated with body height, body shape could possibly be improved to establish a tall animal with characteristic meat animal traits.

Biodiversity of domestic livestock in the Republic of Yemen.

This paper describes the domestic livestock of the Republic of Yemen and aspires to complement earlier sources listing or partially describing 'breeds'. It attempts to cover all species and provide indications of production parameters through a literature review and via field observations made by the author in 1999. Information is provided on livestock numbers and the economic importance of animal production. Most animals are kept in sedentary mixed crop-livestock production systems; transhumant systems have the next greatest number of stock; with nomadic systems being of least and declining importance. Yemen's livestock appear to comprise at least 11 breeds of sheep, 5 breeds of goat, 2 breeds of cattle, 4 breeds of camel, 2 breeds of donkey and 1 breed of horse. There are no data on breeds of poultry but domestic fowl (where clearly considerable diversity exists) and pigeons are kept. There is little formal information on the history and relationships of most breeds. Some appear to be of ancient local origin, whereas others show affinities with those of neighbouring and other countries. None of the identified types is considered endangered, so conservation would be premature. A more formal and detailed genetic characterization, to add to the largely morphological and traditional classification, may, however, reveal such a need.

Meat texture of lambs from different European production systems

Measurements of meat texture (Warner-Bratzler shear force, WBSF), compression stress at 20% (S20) and 80% (S80) of initial sample thickness, sarcomere length, pH, and sensory tenderness score were determined on the longissimus muscle from lambs from 22 diverse European lamb types from 6 countries. Carcasses chilled to minimise cold shortening. The types ranged from 1-month-old milk-fed lambs to 1-year-old heavy wether lambs reared on the transhumance system (extensive system based on moving animals from valleys to high mountains in search of seasonal resources). Overall, it seems that breed was more important in influencing meat toughness than age or gender. Within breed, there was some evidence of an age effect (the older the animal the tougher the meat), and nutritional handling was, in some cases, significant. The lowest WBSF values were for meat from 16-kg carcasses of pasture-fed animals of the Icelandic breed (average 1.7 kg) and the highest were for meat from 19–20 kg carcasses of the Bergamasca breed (average 4.1 kg). The two youngest types had the highest values for S20 (10.5 and 11.8 N/cm2), the compression value related to myofibrillar component. There was a very good agreement between panels from the different countries in the ranking of tenderness; meat from the Icelandic breed was the most tender and that from the Bergamasca breed the least, in concurrence with the WBSF results, with a significant relationship between tenderness and WBSF values in all the lamb types studied.

Environmental constraints in habitat use by free-ranging beef-cattle in the Natural Park of Gorbeia (Basque Country)

Mountain pastures utilisation in the Basque Country by means of a free-range mixed-grazing system has suffered substantial changes during the last decades. Beef cattle production has increased partially favoured by CAP (Common Agricultural Policy) measures, mainly milk-quotas and the extensification premium. The use of mountain areas is constrained by both biotic and abiotic factors in cattle (Senft et al, 1985; Bailey, 1995) which are necessary to be identified in order to improve habitat management of these mountain zones, usually declared as protected areas. The objective of the current work was to study the influence of physical factors on the behaviour of beef-cattle herds managed in a transhumant free-range system.

Transformation of a border region: dispersed agricultural communities in Brasov County, Romania

A most distinctive feature of the settlement pattern of the Brasov area is the extreme dispersal of mixed farming encountered in the western extreme of the county to the north and south of Zarnesti: the Bran and Poiana Marului areas. Here a system of peasant subsistence farming developed in a political borderland between the Habsburg and Ottoman Empires. Despite feudal pressures, the peasantry took all available opportunities to extend their independence including elaborate transhumance systems. And after seeing transfrontier commerce as a source of plunder, in the tradition of Balkan highway robbery within relatively unregulated spaces, the peasantry has profited through employment in factories, particularly during the communist period. However, the current recession in manufacturing is throwing the rural population back on limited land resources. Although farming assumes an important subsistence role which contributes to stability, the long-term survival of these communities will depend on new sources of income. Rural tourism has considerable potential and a promising start has been made in Bran. There are, however, constraints on the further development of the business and great attention will have to be given to the conservation of the environment in both the Bucegi Mountains and the Piatra Craiului where national park status is proposed.

Implications of changes to the transhumance system for conservation of the mountain catchments in eastern Lesotho

Abstract The mountain catchments above 2 750 m a.s.l. in eastern Lesotho are a proclaimed Managed Resource Area (MRA) as a result of official concern about degradation of the grasslands of the alpine belt, and of recent parastatal interventions in the local livestock economy. However, the demarcation of the MRA may be inappropriate because it ignores recent changes in the transhumance system which threatens to cause greater degradation of the grasslands in the subalpine belt, particularly in the lower subalpine zone. In response to a variety of ecological and social factors, Basotho have modified the transhumance system by establishing winter grazing posts in this zone which lies between the summer grazing post areas in the subalpine zone and the alpine belt and the villages. The former areas are now used more intensively than the latter areas, thereby increasing the potential for greater degradation in the lower subalpine than in the upper subalpine zone and in the alpine belt. It is argued that the cons...

Parasite control in transhumant situations

Transhumance is defined as ‘seasonal moving of livestock to regions of different climate’. It is an integral part of livestock production in many parts of the world and takes several forms including moving of livestock from lowland to mountainous pastures or from dry to humid areas. The impact of transhumance on parasite populations of livestock and on parasite control is described, mainly using examples from Europe. The epidemiology of trichostrongylidosis of cattle, mainly caused by Ostertagia ostertagi and Cooperia oncophora, is characterised by prolonged survival of overwintered infective larvae until the end of June. Cattle moved to such contaminated pastures in a transhumant grazing system are exposed to these larvae and may be protected, during the second half of the grazing season until autumn, by a late application (June/July) of an intraruminal drug-release device. Community pastures used in a transhumant system with mixed grazing of young cattle originating from various farms may enhance transmission of dictyocaulosis. Therefore, specific prophylactic measures are required. Hill sheep nematode populations may differ from those in lowland sheep in the Haemonchus contortus generally plays a minor role in hill sheep in which Ostertagia circumcincta and Nematodirus spp. predominate. Infections with Fasciola hepatica and Dicrocoelium dendriticum can be acquired on mountainous pastures by cattle, sheep and other livestock grazing in a transhumant system as intermediate hosts of these parasites may find suitable habitats in these regions. There is evidence that in the prealpine and alpine area both parasites are mainly transmitted in two-season cycles. Further examples for the impact of transhumance on parasite-host inter-relationships include cysticercosis in cattle, echinococcosis, psoroptic mange in sheep, tick-borne fever of cattle, and hypodermosis in cattle. These are described and discussed.

Livestock production in central Mali: ownership, management and productivity of poultry in the traditional sector.

A survey of small-scale poultry production in an urban and two agropastoral systems covered 381 households. Less detailed information was also obtained from a small sample in a transhumant pastoral system. More households owned poultry in the rice (89.5%) than in the millet (81.1%) or urban (57.1%) systems. Domestic fowl were commonest in all systems followed by pigeons, Guinea fowl and then ducks, although the last were absent from the millet zone. Most families kept only one species but there was more diversification in the rice system. Flock sizes were largest in the rice system for fowls, Guinea fowl and pigeons while duck flocks averaged more birds in the urban area. Females predominated in all species except pigeons where sex ratios were about equal. Management practices in relation to housing, feeding, health care and consumption and marketing are described. Productivity figures relating to egg production, egg size, hatchability, growth and mortality are provided.

Quantitative analyses of the 13th/14th century land holding systems of north-west Wales

The complex structure of the medieval land holding systems of north-west Wales included 18 different categories of land holding. These categories were connected in varying degrees with a kinship system, status of individuals and land, its personal holding and with a system of seasonal transhumance. These systems are likely to have developed under conditions of population growth and successive periods of cultural contact during the 11th to 14th centuries. The main features of spacial and temporal variation in the systems involved have been systematised, particularly by the use of indices of concentration and of distance of similarity. Thus zones of high and low concentration in the land holding systems have been recognised. High concentration systems occurred mainly in the uplands or where accultural influences were strongest. Low concentration and greater heterogeneity in the systems of land holding occurred in more favourable lowland areas particularly on the western sea board of the area most isolated from contemporary accultural influences. Concentration in the land holding systems was likely to be inversely related to extremes of natural and man made environments. There is also some limited evidence that concentration in the land holding systems was inversely related to the diversity of agricultural enterprise, although along the eastern borders of the region, where accultural influences were very strong, this relationship did not hold. At the present time, no unequivocal evidence of a relationship between land holding structure and agricultural production exists, other than the co-incidental high production of diverse lowland systems compared with the low production of less diverse uplands. The existence of varying degrees of competition within the land holding systems is speculative at the present time. It is only by analogy with modern economic systems that the suggestion can be made that competition within the systems was inversely related to concentration. Since no means has been developed which will give an indication of the relative stability of the land holding systems of north-west Wales during the medieval period, all of which were undoubtedly unstable in varying degrees, no evidence has been accrued of a relationship between structure and stability. In the wider field, the methodology developed in this work could be used to recognise, in quantitative terms, the land holding consequences of cultural contact in less advanced communities of man including that of the medieval period. Additionally, the methodology, when applied to present day less advanced communities, could further understanding of the relationship between land holding structure, population growth, agricultural enterprise and production.

Agronomic Aspects of Jojoba and Its Potential in the Sahel

The term 'Sahel', from the Arabic, meaning coast or plain, was first used south of the Sahara as a phytogeographical concept. It describes the belt of vegetation that stretches from the Atlantic to the Red Sea, and separates the Sahara-from the deciduous savanna woodlands to the south. The Sahel lies roughly between the 75 mm to 450 mm isohyets. With increasing rainfall, the vegetation changes from semi-arid grassland to thorn savanna, of which Acacia senegal is economically important as the producer of gum arabic. The semi-arid grasslands are the home of the oryx and the addax, although a number of other grazing animals and their predators enter the area during the rains. Because of the low rainfall, the Sahel is generally regarded as a marginal area for subsistence agriculture; dry-land cultivation is still carried out in areas receiving as little as 200 mm annual rainfall. The recent and natural tendency towards urbanization has brought about increased pressure on the cultivable land in the immediate vicinity of townships, accompanied by a reduction in the fallow period, to the detriment of soil fertility and structure. At present, the most effective utilization of the Sahel and adjoining areas is by grazing, especially by the nomadic or transhumance systems of management. Livestock populations have a definite breeding structure, indicating that herds and flocks are not kept merely for prestige purposes. The recent drought has aggravated the overgrazing in the less drought-stricken areas. Recovery of the grazing throughout the area is unlikely unless the grazing pressure can be kept well below the carrying capacity of the improved grazing, until such time as recolonization and full recovery is effected. Although there are techniques available to arrest the present deterioration, whether by overcultivation or overgrazing, they are largely uneconomic. There is an urgent need for the development of economic crops for the Sahel which will make the conservation of the area financially possible.

Pastoralism and Zimbabwe

Excavations at the Zimbabwe (enclosure) of Manekweni, in southern coastal Mozambique, have shown that it belongs to the Zimbabwe Culture which was centred on the Rhodesian plateau. Occupation levels have been dated to between the twelfth and eighteenth centuries. The faunal evidence indicates that a section of the population benefited from intensive beef production through transhumant pastoralism on the seasonally-fluctuating fringes of tsetse fly infestation. The settlement pattern of Rhodesian Zimbabwe suggests that their siting was determined by the demands of a similar system of transhumance. This model provides a basis from which to begin to reconstruct some aspects of the economies of early Zimbabwe. It is already clear that Zimbabwe were not simply the products of long-distance trade; rather, their economies integrated farming and cattle-herding as well as gold production and foreign trade.

Transhumance Effect on Husbandry Practices and Physiological Attributes of Chauri (Yak-Cattle) in Rasuwa District

This study was conducted in Rasuwa district, Nepal from 2008 to 2009 in Chauries (3 to 16 years) to analyze the transhumance effect in husbandry practices and physiological vitals. Physiological vitals were evaluated by 2×4 Factorial CRD with two levels of altitude (high- 3300 m and low- 1655 m) and four levels of age group (G1- ≤6 yrs, G2- 7 to 9 yrs, G3- 10 to 13 yrs and G4- >13 yrs); information regarding husbandry practices were collected from herders (n=60) using semi-structured questionnaire. Physiological vitals were taken from two altitudes, then analyzed for two- way ANOVA by Mstat- C and survey data by SPSS 16.0. Husbandry practices were found to be almost similar round the year except the matter of herbage supplementation during winter and early parturition. Rectal temperature, respiration rate, pulse rate and DSI showed significant increase (P<0.01) when animals were at low altitude pasture. Therefore, findings of this study revealed that transhumance system of Chauri management is herders' rational farming approach to make use of available pastures at different altitudes and have a distinct impact on rearing system and animals' physiology.DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/on.v9i1.5747