Life Skills Transfer Research Articles

The Implicit/Explicit Continuum of Life Skills Development and Transfer

ABSTRACT There is an ongoing discussion as to how life skills development and transfer should be addressed. Previously, researchers have proposed an implicit/explicit dichotomy to explain how life skills teaching occurs. As research within the area of sport-based youth development continues to progress, a model is needed to delineate the varying levels of implicitness/explicitness at which coaches can facilitate life skills development and transfer. Within this article, an implicit/explicit continuum of life skills development and transfer is presented and distributed across six levels: (a) structuring the sport context, (b) facilitating a positive climate, (c) discussing life skills, (d) practicing life skills, (e) discussing transfer, and (f) practicing transfer. The levels found within the continuum are grounded in existing sport psychology literature. Conceptually, researchers can use the continuum to empirically situate how coaches teach life skills. Practically, the continuum can help coaches frame their approach to life skills development and transfer.

Assessing the Implementation Fidelity of a School-Based Teaching Personal and Social Responsibility Program in Physical Education and Other Subject Areas

Purpose: The Teaching Personal and Social Responsibility (TPSR) model was developed to foster responsibility and teach life skills that transfer to various settings. The purpose of this study was to assess the implementation fidelity of a school-based TPSR program in physical education and other subject areas. Method: Systematic observation was used to assess implementation in two elementary schools. Participants were seven teachers and 170 students between 8 and 12 years old (87 girls and 83 boys). Results: Teachers’ adherence to the model was deemed moderate, with varied application of established responsibility-based teaching strategies. Teachers had notably lower scores related to promoting life skill transfer. However, the strategies teachers used to foster responsibility were significantly correlated with their students’ demonstration of responsible behaviors. Discussion/Conclusion: Results indicate TPSR may provide an effective framework for promoting responsibility across the school curriculum. Implications for research and strategies for promoting implementation fidelity are discussed.

Enhancing the Transfer of Life Skills from Sport-based Youth Development Programs to School, Family, and Community Settings

When designed intentionally, sport-based youth development programs engage youth in physical activity, sport, and exercise as a way to concurrently pursue goals related to socioemotional and physical development (Holt et al., 2017). One such application of this is the Teaching Personal and Social Responsibility (TPSR) model (Hellison, 2011) which has the ultimate goal of students transferring lessons learned within the sport setting to other areas of their life, including family, community, and school. However, once youth leave the program setting, they become vulnerable to challenges from external systems working to support or hinder their transfer of life skills (Martinek & Lee, 2012). Therefore, we propose that (in)congruence among family, school, community and program systems influence the extent to which lessons learned can transfer to other areas of their lives. Specifically drawing from the frameworks of Collective Parental Engagement (Alameda-Lawson & Lawson, 2016) and Students Multiple Worlds’ model (Phelan, Davidson, & Cao, 1991), we argue that skills and competency transfer is best facilitated when social settings which comprise youth’s social systems share similar values and expectations for desired behavior. Practical strategies for enhancing the transferability of lessons learned in TPSR programs through the congruence approach are shared.

Transfer of Life Skills in Sport-Based Youth Development Programs: A Conceptual Framework Bridging Learning to Application

ABSTRACTResearch has demonstrated that many quality sport-based youth development programs promote life skill acquisition (e.g., leadership, self-control) with the ultimate goal of facilitating positive outcomes in youth participants’ social and academic environments. Researchers call this “transfer of life skills” (i.e., the idea that physical, behavioral, and cognitive skills youth learn in sport can be applied in non-sport settings to promote healthy development). However, research surrounding this topic has been mixed, as many studies found evidence of transfer. In this article, a variety of learning theories were integrated to propose a conceptual framework for the transfer of life skills in sport-based youth development. Specifically, this article focuses on how research overlooked the cognitive processes that bridge student learning within a sport program to application outside of the program. A description of the cognitive components youth experience during transfer are described and represented in a logic model.

Strategies for coaching for life skills transfer

ABSTRACTFor athletes, life skills transfer represents the vital ongoing process in their personal development whereby they internalize the skills they have learned in sport and apply them to multiple life domains. The purpose of this article is to offer coaches practical strategies that they can integrate into their coaching to explicitly promote life skills transfer beyond sport. Seven broad strategies, emanating from a synthesis of current literature, are presented alongside specific activities for coaches to help their athletes transfer life skills from sport to other life domains.

Evaluation of The First Tee in Promoting Positive Youth Development: Group Comparisons and Longitudinal Trends

Purpose: This manuscript represents the 3rd in a series of articles documenting our longitudinal evaluation of The First Tee, a physical activity-based youth development program that uses golf as a vehicle for teaching life skills and enhancing developmental outcomes. Previous phases of our project: (a) established initial data-based evidence of effectiveness through cross-sectional and qualitative methods (Weiss, Stuntz, Bhalla, Bolter, & Price, 2013), and (b) provided validity and reliability for a measure of life skills transfer in 3 studies using mixed methods (Weiss, Bolter, & Kipp, 2014). The purpose of the present phase was to: (a) compare youth in The First Tee to youth in other activities on life skills transfer and developmental outcomes, and (b) examine change and stability across 3 years in life skills transfer among youth in The First Tee. Method: In Study 1, youth participating in The First Tee (N = 405) and a comparison group (N = 159) completed measures of key constructs. In Study 2, a longitudinal sample of 192 youth participating in The First Tee completed the life skills transfer measure for 3 consecutive years. Results: Study 1 revealed that youth in The First Tee compared favorably to youth in other activities on 5 of 8 life skills and 6 of 8 developmental outcomes, and Study 2 showed that scores improved or remained stable for life skills transfer over time. Conclusion: Results from both studies show that The First Tee is effective in teaching for transfer of life skills and promoting developmental outcomes.

Life after sport? Examining life skill transfer following withdrawal from sport and compulsory physical education

Researchers have found convincing data to suggest sport is a suitable environment for adolescents to develop intrapersonal and interpersonal life skills. However, there is little evidence suggesting that young females transfer skills learned in sport into other life domains. The aims of this study were to explore whether young women who have withdrawn from sport believe they have developed life skills and to explore the process of transferability across life domains. We employed a qualitative descriptive methodology and collected semi-structured interview data from eight females who had recently withdrawn from the sport. The analysis comprised an inductive and deductive approach and culminated in 61 basic codes and three higher order themes that linked to the study objectives. Results showed that participants believed that they had developed life skills, and life skills were maintained after withdrawal from their sport. The factors that contributed to the perceived transfer of life skills from sport to another life domain comprised an experience in their sport that were memorable, experiential learning, appraisal of the event(s) as valuable, and awareness of the usefulness of the skill outside of sport. Findings add support to existing life skills research while adding insight into the process of perceived transfer of life skills from sport to another life domain in a population of female former sports participants.

An alternative application of imagery in youth sport: Promoting the transfer of life skills to other contexts

Significant sport psychology research has been devoted to the positive effects that sport participation can have on youth outcomes, including social, emotional, and physical skills (Gould & Carson, 2008; Petitpas, Cornelius, Van Raalte, & Jones, 2005). Central to this concept is the idea that learning that occurs during sport participation will actually transfer these valuable life skills to other non-sport contexts in a youth's life (Danish & Nellen, 1997). This article proposes imagery as one potential strategy for facilitating this transfer of learning process from a youth development framework. Several practical suggestions for youth coaches on the application of imagery techniques for life skill utilization in and out of sport are discussed.

Moving Beyond the Gym: Exploring Life Skill Transfer Within a Female Physical Activity-Based Life Skills Program

Physical activity programs are viable contexts to foster life skills. Researchers contend that programs must be structured to deliberately teach life skills and teach how such skills can be transferred. The purpose of this study is to understand female youths’ perceptions of life skills transfer from participation in a physical activity-based life skills program. Interviews were conducted with eight youth. Results indicated that youth learned intrapersonal (i.e., emotional regulation, focus, goal setting), interpersonal (i.e., respect, responsibility, social skills), and physical activity skills and applied these skills in other life domains. Leaders’ practical strategies used to explicitly teach transferable skills are discussed.

Examining the life skill development and transfer experiences of former high school athletes

Previous research has demonstrated how participation in high school sport can be conducive to the development of various life skills. However, there is a lack of exhaustive knowledge regarding the life skills that are developed in high school sport and how athletes believe these skills transfer to different life domains. The purpose of the current study was to examine the life skill development and transfer experiences of former high school athletes. Individual semi-structured interviews were conducted with 10 male and 10 female participants (Mage = 31.95; SD = 13.74). A deductive thematic analysis was conducted using the conceptual model for life skills interventions. The findings illustrate specific examples of life skill development in sport and subsequent life skill application in life by the same participant, thereby providing evidence for the occurrence of the process of transfer. Participants discussed how they developed in high school sport and subsequently applied in life many of the life skills theorised to be associated with the basic psychological needs of autonomy (e.g. self-control), competence (e.g. coping with stress), and relatedness (e.g. social responsibility). The current study offers empirical evidence consistent with the notion that the life skills developed in high school sport can be transferred and applied in other life domains.

Implicit Transfer of Life Skills Through Participation in Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu

The purpose of this study was to explore the transfer of life skills among adults who participated in Brazilian jiu-jitsu. Sixteen adults (19–54 years of age) completed individual semistructured interviews. Interview transcripts were subjected to thematic analysis. Participants thought their involvement in Brazilian jiu-jitsu had changed their lives. These changes occurred via the acquisition of four life skills reflecting values and characteristics of the sport: respect for others, perseverance, self-confidence, and healthy habits. Head instructors and peer support facilitated the acquisition of life skills. Combined, the values of the sport, instructors, and peers created an atmosphere for learning life skills implicitly.

An exploration of life skill development through sport in three international high schools

The positive relationship between adolescents’ sport participation and life skill development is widely acknowledged by various researchers. However, minimal research has explored the role of life skill development through school-based sport participation, specifically within international settings. In light of this consideration, this study examined the life skills developed through sport participation at three international high schools. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews conducted with high school student-athletes (n = 29). Participants’ responses were analysed using a constructivist approach. Results indicated that: (1) participants used sport as a means of social, emotional, and academic self-improvement, and (2) sport helped participants develop an ability to work with others. Most participants identified how they used life skills within the sport environment and the deliberate strategies they used to transfer them to other domains, while few participants indicated that their coaches used intentional strategies to facilitate life skill transfer from the sport environment to other domains.

Psychosocial aspects of exercise and physical activity in childhood.

Purpose:A signature characteristic of positive youth development (PYD) programs is the opportunity to develop life skills, such as social, behavioral, and moral competencies, that can be generalized to domains beyond the immediate activity. Although context-specific instruments are available to assess developmental outcomes, a measure of life skills transfer would enable evaluation of PYD programs in successfully teaching skills that youth report using in other domains. The purpose of our studies was to develop and validate a measure of perceived life skills transfer, based on data collected with The First Tee, a physical activity-based PYD program.Method:In 3 studies, we conducted a series of steps to provide content and construct validity and internal consistency reliability for the life skills transfer survey (LSTS), a measure of perceived life skills transfer.Results:Study 1 provided content validity for the LSTS that included 8 life skills and 50 items. Study 2 revealed construct validity (structural validity) through a confirmatory factor analysis and convergent validity by correlating scores on the LSTS with scores on an assessment tool that measures a related construct. Study 3 offered additional construct validity by reassessing youth 1 year later and showing that scores during both time periods were invariant in factor pattern, loadings, and variances and covariances. Studies 2 and 3 demonstrated internal consistency reliability of the LSTS.Conclusion:Results from 3 studies provide evidence of content and construct validity and internal consistency reliability for the LSTS, which can be used in evaluation research with youth development programs.

Assessing Impact of Physical Activity-Based Youth Development Programs: Validation of the Life Skills Transfer Survey (LSTS)

Purpose: A signature characteristic of positive youth development (PYD) programs is the opportunity to develop life skills, such as social, behavioral, and moral competencies, that can be generalized to domains beyond the immediate activity. Although context-specific instruments are available to assess developmental outcomes, a measure of life skills transfer would enable evaluation of PYD programs in successfully teaching skills that youth report using in other domains. The purpose of our studies was to develop and validate a measure of perceived life skills transfer, based on data collected with The First Tee, a physical activity-based PYD program. Method: In 3 studies, we conducted a series of steps to provide content and construct validity and internal consistency reliability for the Life Skills Transfer Survey (LSTS), a measure of perceived life skills transfer. Results: Study 1 provided content validity for the LSTS that included 8 life skills and 50 items. Study 2 revealed construct validity (structural validity) through a confirmatory factor analysis and convergent validity by correlating scores on the LSTS with scores on an assessment tool that measures a related construct. Study 3 offered additional construct validity by reassessing youth 1 year later and showing that scores during both time periods were invariant in factor pattern, loadings, and variances and covariances. Studies 2 and 3 demonstrated internal consistency reliability of the LSTS.Conclusion: Results from 3 studies provide evidence of content and construct validity and internal consistency reliability for the LSTS, which can be used in evaluation research with youth development programs.

Enablers and barriers for male students transferring life skills from the sports hall into the classroom

There is a widespread belief that sport can be used as a vehicle to promote positive youth development. In particular, using sport to teach young people various life skills has become popular over the previous decade. However, little research has examined the transfer of life skills into other academic and life domains. The transfer-ability programme (TAP) was a multi-faceted intervention, which sought to deliberately teach 20 underachieving, male students life skills through sport. Previous statistical findings from TAP show the intervention groups’ academic grades significantly improved during the intervention to a level above teaching prediction. This suggests that teaching life skills through sport may reduce male underachievement. The purpose of this paper is to examine the enablers and barriers that may influence life skill transfer from the sports hall into the classroom. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 18 (12–13 year old) male students from a secondary school in London, UK. Analysis revealed five higher order themes: Support from peers, Pride, Opportunities, Rewards and Transfer experience. These findings are discussed with reference to how teachers and physical educators may teach life skills within their lessons, and how life skill transfer may enhance the school experience for students across the school environment.

Tough Love for Underserved Youth: A Comparison of More and Less Effective Coaching

The following study explored coaching behaviors and youth coaches’ justifications for their actions by comparing more effective and less effective coaches from an underserved setting. Reasons for their coaching behaviors were also explored. In-depth interviews and ethnographic observations were conducted with 12 coaches from 6 different youth sports. Support for each theme from the analysis was compared between the 6 more effective and 6 less effective coaches. Less effective coaches tried to create a sense of family within the team, but used very negative, militaristic coaching strategies that were not developmentally appropriate. Less effective coaches justified the negative approach because of the perceived dangers in the inner city and attempted to toughen their players through harsher methods. More effective coaches challenged players while being supportive, attempted to develop close relationships along with a positive team climate, and promoted autonomy and the transfer of life skills from sport to life. More effective coaches appeared to be more open to coach training and others’ ideas—they could be described as lifelong learners. The results from this study not only reveal how more and less effective coaches differ, but provide possible insight as to why they differ. The study provides unique insights for researchers and coaching educators interested in particularly underserved settings and in developing less effective coaches.

‘More than a game’: impact of The First Tee life skills programme on positive youth development: project introduction and Year 1 findings

This manuscript introduces our long-term project and provides Year 1 data on evaluating the effectiveness of The First Tee life skills programme in promoting positive youth development. To set up subsequent articles on this multi-phase project, we provide: (a) a review of the positive youth development theoretical framework and studies in the physical domain, (b) an in-depth description of The First Tee, a sport-based youth development programme, (c) overall project purposes and research design, (d) Year 1 samples, methodology, procedures and evaluation methods and (e) Year 1 findings for learning and transferring interpersonal and self-management skills that were taught in the programme. Findings provide initial data-based evidence that The First Tee is having a positive impact on promoting youth development in the golf context and in the transfer of life skills to other domains.