Transesterification Process For Biodiesel Production Research Articles

Biodiesel production from transesterification of Australian Brassica napus L. oil: optimisation and reaction kinetic model development

Edible oil-based feedstocks based biodiesel is still leading the industry around the world. Canola oil (Brassica napus L.) contributes significantly to that race. Process optimisation and the development of reaction kinetic models of edible oil feedstocks are still required since the knowledge of kinetics is needed for designing industrial facilities and evaluating the performance of catalysts during transesterification or other related processes in a biorefinery. This research focuses on the transesterification process for biodiesel production because of its higher output efficiency, reactivity with feedstock, techno-economic feasibility in terms of FFA content, and environmental sustainability. The response surface method with the Box–Behnken model was used to optimise the process. Multivariate analysis of variance (ANOVA) was also performed to investigate the effectiveness of the regression model. The optimal process conditions were found to be 5.89 M methanol, 0.5% (w/w) KOH, 60 °C and 120 min. The predicted yield was 99.5% for a 95% confidence interval (99.1, 99.9). The experimental yield was 99.6% for these conditions. Two different kinetic models were also developed in this study. The activation energy was 16.9% higher for the pseudo-first-order irreversible reaction than for the pseudo-homogenous irreversible reaction. Such a comprehensive analysis will assist stakeholders in evaluating the technology for industrial development in biodiesel fuel commercialisation.

Advances in catalytic transesterification routes for biodiesel production using microalgae

In the era of industrialization, the issues of greenhouse effect and depletion of unrenewable fossil fuels contributed to analyzing the potential of third-generation feedstock (microalgae) for biodiesel production owing to the cost-effectiveness, high lipid properties, and lesser carbon emission. In the conventional transesterification process, lipid and methanol are converted into alkyl esters and glycerol under the aid of a catalyst at 60 °C to 70 °C. However, in-situ transesterification is suggested over various process types due to the elimination of the costly and time-consuming drying and lipid extraction processes. The heating assisted methods including ultrasonic and microwave heating, aided in the lipid extraction have also been studied. It is found that heating-assisted methods can reduce the lipid extraction time and solvent usage. Apart from the heating assisted methods, operating factors affecting the alkyl esters conversion yield had been reviewed including solvent types, solvent/biomass ratio, reaction time, temperature, and moisture content. Also, various types of catalysts utilized in the process had been determined including homogenous catalyst, heterogeneous catalyst, and nanocatalyst. In short, this paper reviewed the advanced transesterification process for biodiesel production and the interaction of process parameters in optimizing the reaction conversion yield.

Biodiesel Production from Waste Oils: A South African Outlook

The viability of large-scale biodiesel production ultimately boils down to its cost of commercialisation despite other very important factors such as the negative environmental and health effects caused by the direct combustion of fossil diesel. How much each country’s economy will be influenced by the production of biodiesel will be determined by the commitment of various stakeholders to the much-needed transition from petroleum-based resources to renewable resources. Biodiesel production is largely determined by the cost of the feedstock (>70%) and this review focuses on the use of waste oil resources as biodiesel feedstock with a special focus on waste cooking oil (WCO). Generating value from waste oil provides an alternative waste management route as well as a positive environmental and economic contribution. The transesterification process for biodiesel production, its catalysis and some important technical and economic aspects are covered in this communication with a special focus on the South African framework. An overview of the current research and its implications going forward is discussed.

A Study on Performance Evaluation of Biodiesel from Grape Seed Oil and Its Blends for Diesel Vehicles

With incessant increases in fuel prices worldwide and concerns for environmental pollution, the need for alternative sources of energy is becoming urgent. In this study, the potential of grape seed oil for biodiesel as an alternative fuel was evaluated. Refined grape seed oil was bought in liquid form and then subjected to an alkali-catalyzed transesterification process for biodiesel production. The physicochemical properties of the resulting biodiesel—namely, viscosity, cetane number, and heating value—were investigated. The biodiesel was blended with a conventional diesel in various proportions and combusted in a four-cylinder, four-stroke compression ignition (diesel) engine under two loading conditions. Experimental results revealed that the blend ratio of B70 (70% GS biodiesel and 30% conventional diesel) gave the best overall engine performance in terms of maximum power, minimum emissions, and fuel consumption. Furthermore, a novel neural network technique called extreme learning machine was adopted to investigate the optimal blend ratio using the dataset obtained from the experimental results. The results also indicate that the best choice of biodiesel blend ratio is approximately B73.67 (73.67% GS biodiesel and 26.33% conventional diesel). The study shows that grape seed oil could serve as a reliable source of production of quality biodiesel fuels, which could be used as an alternative to conventional diesel fuels.

Geothermal solid waste derived Ni/Zeolite catalyst for waste cooking oil processing

The main aim of this work was to develop a sustainable Ni/Zeolite catalyst derived from geothermal solid waste for waste cooking oil processing. The effects of catalyst concentration and operation temperature on the transesterification process for biodiesel production which used waste cooking oil as feedstock were investigated to determine the optimum biodiesel process condition. Results have shown the synthesized Ni/Zeolite catalyst was granular in shape and crystalline with increased surface area and pore volume, 80.661 m2 g−1, and 0.123 cc g−1 respectively. Meanwhile, the highest biodiesel yield obtained was 89.4 % at 3 % w/w Ni/Zeolite catalyst addition and 60 °C operating temperature. The reusability of the synthesized catalyst was also investigated, with results showing the biodiesel yield decreasing to 73.3 % after three cycles.

Direct transesterification of wet microalgae to biodiesel using phosphonium carboxylate ionic liquid catalysts

In this study, four types of tetrabutylphosphonium carboxylate ionic liquids (ILs) were synthesized and used for a one-pot transesterification of wet Chlorella vulgaris (C. vulgaris) microalgae into fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) in the presence of methanol, as well as refined oils (sunflower, canola, and corn oil). The resulting process removed the need for complete drying and lipid extraction steps typically needed for biodiesel production from microalgae. The leading candidate ionic liquid catalyst, tetrabutylphosphonium formate ([P4444][For]), was further optimized using response surface methodology to minimize material consumption, increase water compatibility, reduce processing time while maximizing yield from wet microalgae biomass. The optimized conditions resulted in a yield of 98.0 ± 2.48% using biomass containing 40 wt% water. Finally, the reusability of the ionic liquid was confirmed and [P4444][For] could be recycled with less than 2% loss between cycles. Due to the simple and low cost of synthesizing this IL, [P4444][For] is a promising catalyst for a one-pot transesterification process for biodiesel production from wet microalgae biomass.

Utilization of rice husk silica as solid catalyst in the transesterification process for biodiesel production

Biodiesel from palm oil is a promising renewable fuel for substitute petro-diesel either be used directly or as a diesel mixture. To improve reaction rate and biodiesel yield, adding a catalyst with excess alcohol is needed in transesterification process. The high content of silica in rice husks is very prospective for the development of a heterogeneous catalyst. The study was carried out to investigate catalytic activity of the silica from rice husk produced by the impregnation process and various calcination temperatures at various amounts of it in the transesterification process for biodiesel production. A preliminary study was carried out to determine the amount of catalyst in the transesterification process. The amount of catalyst producing the highest yield of biodiesel was used in the next study. In the main study, the catalyst from rice husk silica was synthesized through an impregnation process used 1 N KOH and calcination processes at 200, 300, 400, and 500 °C. The experimental result showed the crystallinity degree of the catalyst first increased and then decreased with increases in calcination temperatures. The calcination at 300 °C resulted in the highest surface area of the catalyst (7.21 m2/g). The biodiesel produced through transesterification process using catalyst from rice husk silica with impregnation of KOH 1N and calcination at 300 °C resulted in the highest methyl ester (94.39 %), total acid number of 0.09 mg KOH/g, total glycerol of 0.57 %, saponification number of 186.76 %, free glycerol of 0.01 %, and moisture content of 650.55 ppm.

Role of microbial lipases in transesterification process for biodiesel production

Bio-diesel is a fuel produced by transesterification reaction of oil or fat in the presence of a catalyst. It is an alternate renewable source for petrol and diesel, which helps in reducing greenhouse gases emissions. Chemical catalysts such as sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, sulfuric acid are used in the conventional methods of biodiesel production. This review focusses on application of lipase enzyme in transesterification of different types of oils such as: soybean, sunflower, rapeseed, palm oil, and waste cooking oil. Worldwide production of biodiesel via lipase enzyme and its economic as well as future aspects are also discussed. Various researchers have used free lipase in biodiesel production however, some lipases are also utilized as immobilized form. There are number of fungal and bacterial species that have been used to synthesize lipases, some of the microbial species are as follows: Aspergillus niger, Burkholderia cepacia, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus epidermidis etc. Solid-state fermentation and broth culture of fungus is suitable for crude lipase production. Immobilized lipase plays very significant role in transesterification process. Lipases enzymes act as a good catalyst therefore, its production and utilization may be a better alternative of chemical catalysts.

Study of the properties of an epoxy adhesive with additions of a residue from the biodiesel production process

In order to increase fuel supplies and reduce the gaseous emissions responsible for global warming, the production of biofuels has been stimulated. However, Biodiesel production leads to a huge amount of residues. The inappropriate discard of these residues generates an environmental problem. An important co-product of the transesterification process for biodiesel production is glycerol (also known as glycerin), representing 10% of the processed mass. Therefore, there are studies being carried out for the proper destination of glycerol. From these studies, one application of glycerol that deserves special attention is in the production of polymers. In this sense, this work studies the possibility of incorporating crude glycerol in epoxy adhesives, where fractions of 1.0%, 2.5%, 5.0% and 10.0% were added into epoxy. The tests carried out were tensile tests, adhesion tests and dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA), in order to evaluate the mechanical, adhesives and thermal behavior of the epoxy with these additions. In conclusion, small fractions of glycerol, like 1.0%, showed satisfactory results, in general, not decreased in adhesive properties; in opposite it leads to a small improvement with need more studies. With 2.5% and 5.0% of addition, more investigation is advisable. However, it was observed indications of improvement in properties, although less than those obtained with 1.0%. With 10.0% of addition there were sharp deterioration of properties, showing that use with 10.0% is not recommendable.

Performance assessment of a compression ignition engine propelled with rice bran biodiesel/propanol mixtures

This work examines the effect of propanol as an oxygenated additive to improve the performance aspects of rice bran biodiesel. The single-cylinder, oil-cooled compression ignition engines are employed in this work. Neat rice bran biodiesel (R100) is blended with two proportion of propanol at 10% and 20% volume and mentioned as P10R90 and P20R80, respectively. Methanol and alkaline catalyst (KOH) was used for transesterification process for biodiesel production. The transesterification technique yielded 88% of biodiesel from raw rice bran oil. BSFC (Fuel consumption) lowered and BTE (efficiency) increased with the inclusion of propanol blends (P10 and P20) to neat rice bran biodiesel.

Experimental assessment of performance and exhaust emission characteristics of a diesel engine fuelled with Punnai biodiesel/butanol fuel blends

This work examines the effect of butanol as an oxygenated additive to lower carbon monoxide, smoke, nitrogen oxide and hydrocarbon emissions and to improve the performance aspects of Calophyllum inophyllum (Punnai) biodiesel. Single-cylinder, oil-cooled compression ignition engines are employed in this work. Neat Punnai biodiesel (P100) is blended with butanol at 10% and 20% by volume and labelled as B10P90 and B20P80, respectively. Methanol and alkaline catalyst (KOH) were used for the transesterification process for biodiesel production. The transesterification technique yielded 88% biodiesel from raw Punnai oil. Engine tests resulted in lower CO, smoke, NOx and HC emissions when fuelled with both butanol blends when compared to P100. In addition, BSFC (brake-specific fuel consumption) reduced and BTE (brake thermal efficiency) increased with the inclusion of butanol blends (B10 and B20) to neat Punnai biodiesel.

Optimization of acid catalyzed esterification and mixed metal oxide catalyzed transesterification for biodiesel production from Moringa oleifera oil

AbstractMoringa oleiferaoil (MOO), a second-generation lipid feedstock that has been reckoned as a promising feedstock for biodiesel production in recent years. In the current study, crude MOO possessing high acid value (80.5 mg of KOH/g) was subjected to two step esterification and transesterification process for biodiesel production and the process was applied with central composite design (CCD) based response surface methodology (RSM). The results showed that H2SO4concentration of 0.85 vol%, reaction time of 70.20 min, and methanol to oil ratio of 1:1 (vol/vol) significantly decreased the acid value to 3.10 mg of KOH/g of oil. Moreover, copper oxide-calcium oxide (CuO-CaO) nanoparticles were developed and evaluated as a novel heterogeneous base catalyst for synthesizingMoringa oleiferamethyl esters (MOME). The synthesized catalyst was scrutinized using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersive X-ray (EDAX) analysis. Copper oxide (CuO) was perceived to be the dominant phase in the synthesized catalyst. Highest MOME conversion of 95.24% was achieved using 4 wt% CuO-CaO loading, 0.3:1 (vol/vol) methanol to oil ratio and 150 min reaction time as the optimal process conditions.

Clean transesterification process for biodiesel production using heterogeneous polymer-heteropoly acid nanocatalyst

In the present study, new hetrogeneous catalysts, in which phosphotungstic acid is chemically bonded to hydrophobic highly crosslinked poly(4-divinylbenzene-co-vinylbenzyl chloride) via a soft linker, ethylenediamine (Cat-2C) or 1,8-diaminooctane (Cat-8C). The synthesized polymer was identified by infrared, Raman spectroscopy, scanning and transmittance electron microscopy, and dispersibility test. The prepared catalysts possessed uniform core-shell structure and high acidic sites. The presence of vinyl benzyl chloride in the polymer enables more phosphotungstic acid on the surface of the polymer with excellent dispersibility. Utilizing the polymer structure, synergies between acidic and hydrophilic sites (onium ion) sites lead to good results than methyl and ethyl oleate (99.8%, 84.3%) using a low ratio of alcohol and oleic acid and a short time compared to other catalysts. The catalysts showed superior catalytic performance originated from favoring the smooth transportation of reactant and product. The durability of catalysts was unaltered up to 7 cycles with no loss of phosphotungstic acid. Cat-8C was tested in the transesterification of castor oil process. Transesterification of castor oil was conducted at the determined optimal condition, and the characterization of the produced biodiesel is reported. • Successful design of PTA-functionalized cross-linked polymers. • PTA is chemically bonded to porous polymers through a soft linker. • Methyl, and ethyl oleate (99.8%, 84.3%) yielded at low molar ratio & short time. • The durability of catalysts was almost retained up to 7th cycles. • Transesterification of castor oil for biodiesel production was reported.

A review of optimum conditions of transesterification process for biodiesel production from various feedstocks

Development of low-cost, sustainable and environmentally friendly biodiesel is a key focus in the energy industry worldwide. It is known that selecting suitable raw feedstock materials and optimising an efficient transesterification process are crucial in biodiesel production. Effective and realistic strategies are imperative in order to boost the quantity and quality of biodiesel production. In fact, scientists and researchers have put great effort to improve the market value of their biodiesel products. In recent years, the feasibilities of several raw materials as feedstocks to produce biodiesel have been assessed by researchers. These materials were reported able to produce biodiesel that met international standards, namely the American Society for Test and Materials D6751 and European Standard 14214. Although these biodiesel products have met the quality criteria, their fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) contents differ. This review focuses on optimum conditions (methanol/oil molar ratio, amount of catalyst, reaction temperature and reaction time) of transesterification process for biodiesel production from various feedstocks. The influence of these factors on FAME composition is also discussed. This review is beneficial to scientists working on biodiesel production particularly for the evolution of eco-friendly and low-cost biodiesel.

CaO Nanocatalyst for Transesterification Reaction of Palm Oil to Biodiesel: Effect of Precursor’s Concentration on the Catalyst Behavior

Depletion of fossil fuel sources in a few decades due to industrialization and motorization has led to a keen interest in the production of alternative fuels like biodiesel. Research on the development and improvement of more efficient transesterification process for biodiesel production has attain great attention in the last decade. The using of low cost catalyst is one of the main focuses on the biodiesel production. As a basic heterogeneous catalyst, CaO has been examined in the transesterification of vegetable oils for biodiesel production. In this research, calcium oxide (CaO-X) catalysts were prepared by sol-gel method at different Ca2+ precursor concentration (X = 1.0, 1.5, 2.0 M). The crystalline structure and morphology of the synthesized catalysts were characterized by means of x-ray diffraction (XRD) and N2 adsorption-desorption analysis. All the synthesized catalysts were then applied to transesterification reaction of palm oil to produce biodiesel. The characterization by x-ray diffraction demonstrate CaO-1.0 was partially hydrated due to the incomplete reaction during synthesis. As a matter of fact, formation of H2O on the surface of CaO causes lower basic strength of the catalysts, thus responsible in lowering the catalytic activity. It is demonstrated that CaO-2.0 exhibits mesoporous structure with least chemisorb amount of H2O on the catalysts surface has a very active catalytic activity. It was found that 2.0M of calcium precursor has high catalytic activity and 81% FAME yield was obtained within 3h reaction.

Development of biochar as fuel and catalyst in energy recovery technologies

Abstract This study aims to (1) convert agricultural waste to biochar through pyrolysis, (2) examine its physiochemical characteristics, and (3) investigate its potential role as fuel and catalyst in energy recovery technologies. The produced biochars at 250, 350, and 450 °C showed a wide range of mineralogical composition, high porosity, and thermal stability, and alkaline pH that make biochar suitable for improving the processes of energy recovery technologies such as anaerobic digestion (AD), transesterification and pyrolysis. The alkaline pH of biochars can neutralize the acidic condition and increase the digestibility of the feedstock in AD process for enhanced methane (CH4) production. Biochar favors the transesterification process for biodiesel production due to products separation and high stability under basic and acidic conditions. In pyrolysis process, biochar can act as a catalyst to increase the degradation rates of plastic or biomass wastes or can be used as an adsorbent material during the post-treatment to improve the quality of the liquid oil. The high heating values (HHV) of biochars produced at 250, 350 and 450 °C were 24, 23.64 and 23.08 MJ kg−1. This characteristic of biochar along with the high tendency of slagging indicate that biochar could be used itself as a source of energy. Biochar can also act as a promising low-cost adsorbent for capturing carbon dioxide (CO2) due to its highly porous structure and sorptive capacity and subsequently the conversion of absorbed CO2 to fuel. Research is yet required on the application of biochar in pyrolysis and capturing and catalyzing the conversion reactions of CO2 to fuels.

Fuzzy modeling and optimization of the synthesis of biodiesel from waste cooking oil (WCO) by a low power, high frequency piezo-ultrasonic reactor

This study was aimed at performing a multi-objective fuzzy modeling and optimization of a low power, high frequency piezo-ultrasonic reactor applied for biodiesel production from waste cooking oil (WCO). To achieve this, three different fuzzy optimization methods were interfaced with adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS) as modeling system to minimize the specific energy consumption of the reactor and to satisfy the ASTM standard on yield, i.e., conversion efficiency of >96.5%. Two ANFIS models were applied to correlate two output variables (conversion efficiency and specific energy consumption) individually with three input variables (reaction temperature, ultrasonic irradiation time, and methanol/oil molar ratio). The multi-objective optimization techniques included the fuzzy systems with independent, interdependent, and locally-modified interdependent objectives. Based on the results achieved, both ANFIS models excellently tracked the output parameters. Furthermore, the fuzzy system with locally-modified interdependent objectives outperformed the other two fuzzy systems in optimizing the transesterification process of WCO. The optimal WCO transesterification process for biodiesel production in the developed reactor corresponded to the methanol/oil molar ratio of 6.1:1, ultrasonic irradiation time of 10 min, and reaction temperature of 59.5 °C, leading to a conversion efficiency of 96.63% and a specific energy consumption of 373.87 kJ/kg.

In-situ transesterification process for biodiesel production using spent coffee grounds from the instant coffee industry

Industrial spent coffee grounds (IND-SCG) are a potential non-edible biodiesel feedstock due to their abundant global supply and high oil content. In this study, an in-situ transesterification (in-situ TE) was developed and scaled up for IND-SCG biodiesel production. Several hurdles must be overcome, including the high acid value, and wide range in particle size of IND-SCG. Washing IND-SCG with methanol reduced its high acid value with negligible loss of oil. Size reduction (0.25–1.68mm) and an increase of the reaction temperatures (30–60°C) were found to improve the biodiesel yield significantly. The whole deacidified IND-SCG was processed at 50°C; and a maximum biodiesel yield of 77% was achieved within 3h. The process was successfully scaled up for processing 4kg IND-SCG per batch with a yield comparable to the 30-g scale. The IND-SCG biodiesel met the ASTM biodiesel standard in terms of total glycerin, water content, kinematic viscosity and oxidative stability index (OSI), but its acid value exceeded the standard. A simple process modification using acidic water to neutralize alkaline catalyst during refining step, instead of strong acid, enabled the IND-SCG biodiesel to meet the standard for acid value. The oxidative stability index of the in-situ IND-SCG biodiesel was superior to that of the conventional process, probably due to the co-extraction of natural antioxidants.

Utilization of Crude Glycerin for Synthetic Gas Production and Potential Electricity Generation

The principal goal of this research was to explore a new avenue of utilizing crude glycerin in potential electricity generation via gasification process integrated with Stirling engine generator. Glycerin (C3H8O3) is a byproduct of vegetable oil or animal fat transesterification process for biodiesel production. An externally heated fixed bed gasification unit was installed to achieve thermal decomposition of glycerin. Glycerin was gasified in the externally heated gasifier. The effects of bed temperature (650, 700, and 750°C) and water to glycerin ratio (0%, 15%, and 30%) on the products yield (gas, liquid, and particulates), gas composition and heating value were investigated. The gas production rate reached 53.4% of the product weight during gasification of crude glycerin. Glycerin gasification produces gas with a relatively medium heating value of 13.14 MJ/m3. The maximum hydrogen mole fraction of 43.6% was obtained under the bed temperature of 750°C. A scenario of integrating crude glycerin gasification system and Stirling engine generators was created for potential electricity generation. An economic analysis model was developed to determine the cost of electricity generation. Using a 5 Mg/day fluidized bed gasifier integrated with four Stirling engine generators, electricity could be potentially generated with the cost of $0.142/kWh.

Process intensification of NaOH-catalyzed transesterification for biodiesel production by the use of bentonite and co-solvent (diethyl ether)

A novel transesterification process for biodiesel production has been developed. Bentonite was used as a water adsorbent to remove moisture from the biodiesel synthesis reaction system. Diethyl ether (DEE) was used as a co-solvent to improve the mutual solubility of oil and methanol. The influence of concentration of NaOH, DEE/methanol molar ratio, methanol/oil molar ratio, amount of bentonite, agitation rate, reaction temperature and reaction time was investigated. Response surface methodology was applied to optimize the main process parameters. The maximum FAME yield of 98.35±0.69% was achieved under the optimized conditions of 0.56:1 of DEE/methanol molar ratio, 1.07wt% concentration of NaOH and 5.65:1 methanol/oil molar ratio. The kinetics and thermodynamic analysis for this process was also carried out. The activation energy for the process was 23.73kJmol−1, and the thermodynamic analysis reveals that the net Gibbs energy change for the process was almost same as that for the bentonite-enhanced transesterification process.