Transesterification Method Research Articles

Physicochemical Study of Ethanol Ratio in the Transesterification Process for Biodiesel Synthesis from Kesambi (Schleichera Oleosa) Seed Oil

The demand for energy, particularly for fossil fuels, has been increasing in line with the growing number of transportation units. However, natural resource conditions such as fossil fuels are not always fulfilled. This is because fossil fuels are categorized as non-renewable resources. Moreover, all countries in the world are required to reduce the use of fossil resources and increase the use of green energy. Therefore, alternative green energy sources are needed to replace fossil fuels. Biodiesel is a green energy source that could be produced from renewable resources. Biodiesel could be obtained from non-food sources such as kesambi oil. In this research, the biodiesel production process was carried out by esterification and transesterification methods. The transesterification process was performed by varying the molar ratio between ethanol and kesambi oil. The molar ratio used in the transesterification process were 4:1, 6:1, 8:1, 10:1, and 12:1. The results showed that the molar ratio of 12:1 produced the lowest values of density, viscosity, and flash point, which were 0.839 g/ml, 3.98 CST, and 109.4°C, respectively, but the highest values of calorific value and yield, which were 9,040 cal/g and 91.30%, respectively.

Rebiopolyols – New components for the synthesis of polyurethane biofoams in line with the circular economy concept

The primary goal of the research presented here was to evaluate the possibility of chemolysis of polyurethane biofoams synthesized from vegetable oil-based biopolyols with different chemical structures. As a reference material, a foam synthesized in 100 % from a petrochemical polyol was used. Chemolysis of polyurethane foams was conducted by using diethylene glycol as a solvent with a 1.5:1 wt ratio of biopolyurethane scraps to glycol. The reaction was carried out at 180 °C for 100 min in the presence of potassium hydroxide as a catalyst. The results of the chemolysis of different polyurethane foams were evaluated in terms of the hydroxyl number, amine value, viscosity, molecular weight and FTIR analysis of the new rebiopolyols. It can be concluded that the chemical structures of different biopolyols (obtained through the method of transesterification of vegetable oils with two different reagents and a two-step method of epoxidation and oxirane rings opening) that are used to make biopolyurethane foams have an impact on the course of the chemolysis process and the properties of resultant rebiopolyols.In order to verify the application possibilities of the new components obtained in accordance with the idea of circular economy, extreme conditions were applied in the form of complete replacement of the polyol in the reference foam with the rebiopolyols. It was found that replacing the petrochemical polyol with the repolyol results in partial cell opening, and replacing this component with the rebiopolyols results in open-cell foams. Only the rebiopolyol derived from the biofoam with the biopolyol obtained by transesterification of oil with triethanolamine was not suitable for use in a polyurethane system because its reactivity was too high. In conclusion, there is no need to use catalysts to obtain new biofoams from rebiopolyols given the catalytic nature of the new biocomponents.

A Review of Catalysts for Synthesis of Dimethyl Carbonate

Dimethyl carbonate (DMC) is widely used as an intermediate and solvent in the organic chemical industry. In recent years, compared with the traditional DMC production methods (phosgene method, transesterification method), methanol oxidation carbonylation method, gas-phase methyl nitrite method, and the direct synthesis of CO2 and methanol method have made much progress in the synthesis process and development of catalysts. The key to the industrial application of DMC synthesis technology is the design and development of high-performance catalysts. Therefore, this paper reviews the research status of the methanol oxidative carbonylation method, gas-phase methyl nitrite method, and direct synthesis method of CO2 and methanol in the aspects of new catalyst design, catalyst preparation, and catalytic mechanism, and puts forward the problems to be solved and the future development direction of DMC catalysts.

Microwave-assisted transesterification of sour cherry kernel oil for biodiesel production: comparison with ultrasonic bath-, ultrasonic probe-, and ohmic-assisted transesterification methods

In this study, sour cherry kernel oil was converted to biodiesel by microwave-assisted transesterification. Evaluations were made of several variables, namely, reaction time (1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 min), microwave power (100, 200, 300, 400, and 500 W), methanol/oil mole ratio (3, 6, 9, 12, and 15), and catalyst (KOH) concentration (0.3%, 0.6%, 0.9%, 1.2%, and 1.5%). The efficiency of fatty acid methyl esters increased in response to lengthier reaction times, greater microwave power, higher methanol/oil mole ratio, and higher catalyst concentrations up to the optimal level. The optimal reaction conditions for microwave-assisted transesterification were 300 W microwave power, 1.2% catalyst concentration, a methanol/oil mole ratio of 1:2, and a reaction time of 4 min. Microwave-assisted transesterification was more effective than ohmic-, magnetic stirrer-, ultrasonic probe-, and ultrasonic bath-assisted transesterification methods. In conclusion, microwave-assisted transesterification can be suggested as a fast, efficient, and economical method compared to other transesterification methods.

Determination of some fuel properties of binary biodiesel and binary biodiesel – diesel blend fuels obtained from camelina oil and waste frying oils

In today's studies on liquid biofuels, it is observed that many of them focus on blends of single biodiesel with diesel. These studies have shown that biodiesel produced from different feedstocks exhibits similar properties to traditional diesel fuel in terms of fuel characteristics and engine performance, indicating the potential of biodiesel to replace diesel fuel. However, recent research has shown limited studies involving the blending of dual biodiesel with traditional diesel fuel.
 In this study, high oil content camelina plant, which has an important place in ensuring sustainability in human food production, in other words, it is not suitable for human food and has the potential to significantly increase our domestic biofuel production, and domestic waste frying oil, which significantly reduces the cost of biodiesel raw material production, were selected as biodiesel feedstock. Binary biodiesel fuels (D0C50WF50, D0C75WF25, and D0C25WF75) were obtained by mixing the biodiesel fuels produced from camelina and domestic waste frying oil by transesterification method in the ratio of 1:1 and 1:3 by volume. Binary biodiesel-diesel blend fuels were obtained by blending binary biodiesel fuels (D75C12.5WF12.5, D50C25WF25 and D25C37.5WF37.5) with conventional diesel fuel (diesel) after blending at 1:1 ratio by volume. As a result of the research, the physicochemical properties (density, kinematic viscosity, flash point, water content, calorific value, cold filter plugging point, cloud and pour point, copper strip corrosion) of the prepared binary biodiesel and binary biodiesel+diesel blend fuels were determined. The results of the analyses of the blend fuels were determined in accordance with the relevant biodiesel standards (EN 14214, ASTM D-6751) and the results were also compared with the reference fuel, diesel fuel.

Experimental investigation of the emission and performance of preheated and unheated garlic methyl ester fuels and diesel fuel in a diesel engine

It is thought that vehicles running on diesel fuel significantly impact climate change in the world. To reduce this negative effect, changing the fuel source without making any changes to the engines is a very attractive method. Considering the environment, climate change, living health, and the lifespan of fossil fuels, studies on biodiesel fuels, which can be an alternative to diesel fuel, are important. In the present study, garlic methyl ester (GME) was produced from crude garlic oil using the transesterification method. The impacts of preheated and unheated GME and its blends on a diesel engine with an air cooling system without any modification were researched. GME was used with diesel at 20% and 60% volumetric ratios and was also used at 100%. Experimental studies were conducted at five engine loads (1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, and 3 kW). The GME and its blends were tested at the specified loads, and the results were obtained. The GME and blends were then preheated at 70 °C, and the experimental studies were repeated under the same conditions. In the tests, NOx, CO, CO2, HC, smoke density, EGT, BSFC, in-cylinder pressure, engine torque, noise, vibration, and thermal image analyses were conducted. According to the results, CO 22.3%, HC 24.9%, smoke density 25.6%, torque 4.6%, cylinder pressure 5.2%, and EGT 11.5% decreased, whereas BSFC 11.2%, noise 1.4%, vibration 3.8%, CO2 6%, and NOx 18.2% emissions increased in GME and its blends compared to diesel. The highest measurement values were obtained with 100% GME fuel. It was observed that both increasing the GME ratio and the preheating process improved the emission and performance values. The results obtained show that GME and its blends can be easily used in diesel engines without any modification.

Biodiesel production from waste cooking oil using calcium oxide derived from scallop shell waste

Abstract Biodiesel is one of the alternative forms of diesel fuel and can be obtained using the transesterification process of waste cooking oil with a catalyst to accelerate the reaction. The heterogeneous catalyst from waste scallop shells is used due to its potential for being reused in the subsequent transesterification reactions. Heterogeneous catalysts can also be recycled, contributing to their environmentally friendly nature. This study aims to identify the performance of recycling a calcium oxide (CaO) catalyst from scallop shell waste on synthesis biodiesel. The method used is the transesterification method with the basic ingredients of waste cooking oil using a CaO catalyst. Then, after the transesterification process is complete, the catalyst is separated from the biodiesel and recycled to be reused in the transesterification process up to five times. The biodiesel samples obtained are identified for yield value, physico-chemical properties, thermal properties and performance. X-ray diffraction characterization results for the CaO catalyst show that it has a crystal size of 67.83 nm. Scanning electron microscope characterization shows that it has spherical particle shapes. Fourier transform infrared characterization shows the presence of Ca–O bonds. The highest biodiesel yield value of 74.23% is obtained in biodiesel Cycle 1. The flash point value of biodiesel samples ranges from 141.2°C to 149°C. Further, all of the biodiesel samples exhibit a cetane number of 75. The highest lower heating value of 38.22 MJ/kg is obtained in biodiesel Cycle 1 and the viscosity of the biodiesel samples ranges from 5.65 to 5.88 cSt. The density of the biodiesel samples ranges from 881.23 to 882.92 kg/m3. Besides, ester functional groups (C=O) and methyl functional groups have been successfully formed in all samples, with the methyl oleate compound observed as dominating the biodiesel samples. The cloud point value of the biodiesel samples ranges from 12°C to 13°C, and their pour point value ranges from 10°C to 12°C. The lead content in biodiesel is 0.8826 mg/kg. The lowest sulphur content is obtained from biodiesel Cycles 1 and 2 at 0.005%. Performance tests show that biodiesel has lower torque and brake power values than commercial diesel fuel and higher specific fuel consumption values than commercial diesel fuel.

Transesterifikasi In situ Produksi Biodiesel Dengan Variasi Massa Bahan Baku Terhadap Karakteristik Biodiesel

Biodiesel is one of the promising alternative fuels, environmentally friendly, and has no adverse effects on health. In this study, biodiesel production was carried out using the in situ transesterification method. The raw material used was mahogany seeds with variations in raw material mass of 10 grams and 20 grams. The catalyst used was KOH with methanol as the solvent and n-hexane as the co-solvent. In situ transesterification was performed at a reaction temperature of 65°C, stirring speed of 400 rpm, and a reaction time of 40 minutes. The research results show that the mass of the raw material affects the biodiesel yield. At a raw material mass of 10 grams, a yield of 70.09% was obtained, while for a raw material mass of 20 grams, the yield was 82.00%. The biodiesel analysis results show that the density values for the 10-gram raw material mass variation are 0.8512, and for the 20-gram raw material mass variation, it is 0.8556. The water content is 1.46%, and the free fatty acid (FFA) content is 0.76 mg KOH/gram for the 10-gram raw material mass variation and 0.675 mg KOH/gram for the 20-gram raw material mass variation. The results of the biodiesel characteristic tests meet the SNI 7182:2015 standard.

Biodiesel Blends for Eco-Friendly CRDI-VCR Engines: Enhancing Exhaust Emissions and Engine Performance to Minimize Pollutant Emissions

<p>Energy is essential but associated with global greenhouse emissions. Therefore, clean and renewable energy is important for future development. To meet this demand, kapok oil methyl ester (KOME) was made from the kapok raw oil through the transesterification method. KOME was then combined with diesel in the ratios of 10%, 20%, and 30% (v/v%) to form KOME10, KOME20, and KOME30 mixtures. The combustion and emissions outcomes of KOME blends were studied at a stationary DI engine under different loads and modified common rail direct injection (CRDI) mode at 400 bar injection pressure, partial load, and CR of 19:1, 20:1, and 21:1. The combustion analysis of blends like maximum pressure (Pmax) and net heat release rate (HRRmax) were observe lesser than diesel at stationary mode, whereas they increased by 13–15% and 16–32% in CRDI mode, respectively. Exhaust from engine such as carbon dioxide, hydrocarbons, and smoke were decreased, but nitric oxide increased about 0.7–1.5% and 1.3–8% for stationary and CRDI modes, respectively, as compared to diesel. This concludes that KOME might be a suitable substitute to diesel fuel for non-road DI engine applications.</p>

Optimization, characterization, and GC-MS analysis of CSOME produced using alkali catalyzed transesterification

Biodiesel (methyl ester) was synthesized from cottonseed oil (CSO) with methanol in the presence of an alkali catalyst (KOH) through the transesterification method. Response surface methodology (RSM) optimized the methyl ester synthesis process. The experimental design matrix was arranged using the Box-Behnken Design (BBD) of RSM. The optimization of methyl ester was achieved by varying variables such as the methanol to CSO ratio, the concentration of the catalyst, and the reaction duration. A contour plot and a surface plot were generated to illustrate the impact of these variables on methyl ester synthesis. The biodiesel yield was modeled as a quadratic equation through RSM analysis, with a coefficient of determination (R2) and adjusted R2 of 0.97 and 0.968, respectively. The optimized CSOME yield (95.04%) was numerically gained at a 1:6 methanol to CSO ratio, a reaction duration of 52.2 min, and a 0.985 wt% catalyst concentration. Based on these parameters, a 94.80% CSOME yield was experimentally obtained. This shows that response surface methodology (RSM) is sufficient for optimizing methyl ester yield. The produced methyl ester was characterized to determine its physicochemical properties. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis was used to identify the specific type and proportion of fatty acid esters present in the CSOME. The main types of fatty acids found in CSOME were methyl 9-cis 11-trans-octadecadienoate (C18:2), hexadecanoic acid methyl ester (C16:0), 11, 14-octadecadienoic acid methyl ester (C18:2), methyl 8, 9-octadecadienoate methyl ester (C18:2), and myristic acid methyl ester (C14:0).

Activated Charcoal Modified with Chromium Oxide as Catalyst for Groundnut Oil <i>Transesterification</i>

A gradual shift to biofuels development was considered advantageous in reducing the pollution and other challenges associated with fossil fuels. Specifically, biodiesel production is one of those options prioritized in the literature. Herein, we demonstrated how a modified activated charcoal sample and chromium oxide can catalyze the upgrading of groundnut oil into fuel-grade biodiesel at the laboratory scale via trans-esterification with methanol. The charcoal-based catalyst was characterized mainly at mole ratio: 3:1 (methanol: oil) reaction time of 1hr and reaction temperature at 60°C. The yield of biodiesel produced were found 71.50% for activated modified charcoal, 59.30% for chromium oxide and 49.45% for charcoal only, which is a little lower than that obtained by some researchers, and the density was found to be 0.56/cm<sup>3</sup> for active modified charcoal, 0.43g/cm<sup>3</sup> for chromium oxide and 0.33g/cm<sup>3</sup> for charcoal only which is within the ASTM approved limits. The viscocity was found to be 3.39mm<sup>2</sup>/s, 2.52 mm<sup>2</sup>/s and 1.85 mm<sup>2</sup>/s for modified activated charcoal chromium oxide and charcoal respectively at 40°C. The free fatty acid was found to be 0.01%, 0.04% and 0.02% for modified activated charcoal, chromium oxide and charcoal respectively and the values are within the range approved by ASTM. The saponification values obtained were 0.56mgKOH/g, 0.84mgKOH/g and 1.12mgKOH/g for modified activated charcoal, chromium oxide and charcoal respectively. Trans-esterification method is found to be good in producing by biodiesel from groundnut oil as corroborated by several investigations.

Zno Loaded Singgora Roof Tiles as Heterogeneous Catalyst for Waste Cooking Oil Biodiesel

This study aimed to utilize the waste cooking oil (WCO) into biodiesel using a novel waste Singgora roof tiles wet impregnated with zinc oxide (ZnO) as a heterogeneous catalyst. The motivation behind this choice stems from the non-recyclable nature of Singgora roof tiles and their potential applicability in biodiesel synthesis. The catalyst was characterized by X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) with energy-dispersive X-ray diffractometer (EDX). A two-step transesterification method was employed to reduce the concentration of free fatty acids (FFA) in the WCO. The process started by treating the WCO with sulfuric acid (H2SO4) to diminish the levels of free fatty acid (FFA), followed by the utilization of the Singgora roof tiles catalyst in the subsequent step. A maximum yield of 96.96% biodiesel was obtained under the optimal conditions, which included a methanol-to- oil ratio of 12:1, a catalyst concentration of 1 wt.%, a reaction temperature of 65 °C, and a 2-hour reaction time. The quality of the biodiesel produced was analyzed according to biodiesel standards specified in the ASTM D6751, EN 14214, and AOCS, and were within the ranges. The study demonstrates the potential of using Singgora roof tiles as a heterogeneous catalyst in biodiesel production, offering a promising approach to repurposing non-recyclable materials and advancing sustainable biodiesel production methods.

Enhanced Mixing Towards the Production of Fatty Acid Methyl Esters by In Situ Transesterification of Eucheuma Cottonii: Experimental and Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) Analysis

Biodiesel is one of the alternative replacements for the conventional fossil fuel-based diesel as the demand for energy is increasing with the increasing world population. The production of biodiesel (also known as fatty acid methyl esters (FAME)) from macroalgae (E. cottonii) is the focus in this study. Conventionally, production of FAME from macroalgae will be carried out through the two-step transesterification processes, which consists of extraction of algal oil (lipids and free fatty acids) and subsequent transesterification step. However, the two-step transesterification method is time and energy consuming processes and thus ways to enhance the production yield of the biodiesel produced are being studied. This paper concentrates on utilization of enhanced mixing technique via in situ transesterification (ISTE) process in FAME production which elucidate the effects of reaction time and mixing intensity. The ISTE reaction was carried out at the ratio of biomass: Methanol (MeOH): Hydrochloric Acid (HCl) (w/v/v) of 1:20:5 and a reaction temperature of 60 °C. The total reaction time for the reaction was 90 minutes, where samples were collected at 30 minutes interval. The increase in reaction time and mixing intensity gave a significant positive impact on the production of FAME. At 90 minutes of reaction time and impeller rotational speed of 900rpm, the maximum amount of methyl palmitate and methyl stearate produced were 0.5729 wt% and 0.0559 wt% respectively. The results of contour of volume fraction (VF) of palmitic acid obtained from Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) analysis from the Aspen Fluent Software is in good agreement to the experimental results of the study.

Performance testing of moringa oleifera seed oil biodiesel with additives in diesel engine

Now a day's liquid biodiesel fuels utilization that are produced from renewable natural resources such as moringa oleifera seeds using transesterification method accounts among the best alternative option for substituting conventional fossil fuels. This investigation shows production of biodiesel from moringa oleifera seeds by transesterification process with an additive of diethyl ether (DEE2%). It also finds out the efficiency and emission analysis of three fuels namely pure diesel, B20 (20% moringa blended with 80% diesel), and B20DEE2% (20% Moringa &2%DEE additive blended with 78% diesel) compression ignition engine using single cylinder, 4-stroke direct injection method. The observations of the fuel characterization show that B20 and B20DEE2% biodiesel blended fuels have nearly equal characteristics such as viscosity, density, and calorific values that compared to diesel fuel. Moreover, these fuels have comparable performance such as brake thermal efficiency, brake power, brake torque, and specific fuel consumption compared to clear diesel fuel, and especially B20DEE2% have better emission condition than B20 biodiesel blend fuel.

Evaluation of the Rate of Reduction of Greenhouse Gases from Diesel Engine Powered with Jatropha Curcas Seed Oil Blend Diesel

As part of the effort to reduce greenhouse gases emissions and lower its negative effects on climate change, this study was conceived with the aim of evaluating the rate of reduction of greenhouse gases emission from diesel engine powered with Jatropha Curcas seed oil blend diesel. The study produced biodiesel from the oil extracted from the Jatrophha Curcas seed using trans-esterification method. The amount of CO2, SO2 and NO2 emitted from a diesel engine powered with conventional oil and jatropha biodiesel blend were determined to ascertain whether there was reduction or increment in percentage of emissions. Laboratory analysis of Jatropha Curcas oil shows that 131.9524g jatropha curcas seed yielded 90.559ml of biodiesel and 41.2437ml of glycerol. Conventional diesel and Jatropha curcas biodiesel produced has similar physiochemical characteristics confirmed through ASTM(US) and DIN(EN) hence their combustibility. CO2 emissions increased with increase in diesel at B100 and B50 while it decreases in B20 and B40. While NO2 emissions increased by 1% in all the revolutions per minute, SO2 was only detected at B100 and B50 emission of the greenhouse gases. From the questionnaire survey conducted at Egbema, it was found that gas flaring has serious adverse effect on vegetation in the area, significant negative effect on the economy of the area due to the rise in air pollution. The result of the laboratory experiments showed that blended green diesel reduces the emission of greenhouse gases from combustion of diesel. The study recommended adoption of renewable energy sources for the operation of the oil firms in Egbema the study therefore concluded that blended green diesel is a promising alternative fuel for internal combustion engines.

Comparison of fuel properties of biodiesels produced from different waste cooking oils

In this study, it was investigated that the fuel properties of waste cooking oils by converting them to biodiesel and their suitability as diesel fuel according to these properties were investigated. However, differences in the separation or mixing of waste edible oils during collection are also presented. Waste cooking oils were obtained from cafeterias and dining hall kitchens in different regions of universities and serving different food product groups. Transesterification method was applied as a method of converting waste oils to biodiesel. Density, kinematic viscosity, flash point, cetane index, water content, calorific value and cold filter plugging point fuel properties of produced biodiesels were investigated. According to the results obtained, it has been revealed that the produced biodiesels comply with the standards, and because the fuel properties of the biodiesel produced from blended oils are within the standards, the waste cooking oils can be mixed during collection. Although the flow and cold flow properties and lower heating value of biodiesel produced with waste oil mixtures are disadvantageous compared to diesel fuel, the cetane index affecting combustion and the flash point value that emphasizes its safety are its important advantages. In addition, the fact that the water content of the produced fuels complies with the standards shows that the biodiesel production is successful and the results obtained can be used safely.

Investigation of the Usability of Biodiesel Produced from Coriander (Coriandrum Sativum L.) Gürbüz Registered Variety Crude Oil in Diesel Engines

In recent years, the use of biodiesel has become increasingly important. One of the potential plants that can be used in biodiesel production is coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.). Coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.), a member of the Apiaceae family, is a medicinal, spice and essential oil plant. Although the homeland of coriander is the Mediterranean countries and the Middle East region, it grows naturally in Anatolia. In this study, coriander crude oil was obtained from coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.) (Gürbüz registered variety) seeds using a screw press. Biodiesel production was obtained from coriander crude oil by transesterification method in a single stage (CGBD). Fuel properties of coriander (Gürbüz registered variety) (CGBD); density (kg m-3) (at 15 oC), kinematic viscosity (mm2 s-1) (at 40 ºC), flash point (oC), water content (mg kg-1), copper strip corrosion (3h at 50 oC), calorific value (MJ kg-1), color (ASTM D1500), cloud point (oC), cold filter plugging point (oC), pour point (oC). The conformity of coriander biodiesel according to EN 14214 standard was examined.

Conversion of Waste Cooking Oil Combined With Corn Oil Into Biodiesel Using the Transesterification Method

Conversion of Waste Cooking Oil Combined With Corn Oil Into Biodiesel Using the Transesterification Method

Application of recycled nickel-oxide nanoparticles for biodiesel synthesis from the non-edible seed oil of Acacia farnesiana

The synthesis of NiO nanoparticles and the investigation of their catalytic activity for the synthesis of biodiesel from the non-edible seed oil of Acacia farnesiana were the objectives of this study. Through the use of SEM and XRD, the synthesis of nanoparticles was confirmed and the surface morphology and physical properties were studied too. The fuel properties were examined using ASTM methods, and the results were compared to the accepted ranges defined by ASTM D-6751. The synthesis of biodiesel, as well as the composition and structure of the chemical compounds present were confirmed using different spectroscopic methods (FT-IR, GC-MS, and 1H & 13C NMR). The transesterification method was used to synthesize the biodiesel. The DLS technique was used to determine the nanoparticles’ size (24 nm). Using 1:9 oil-to-methanol ratio, 20 mg of NiO as a catalyst, and a 60 min reaction time, a maximum biodiesel yield of 96% was achieved. According to the SEM result, the surface morphology of NiO changed with repeatedly use, which led to a drop in biodiesel yield from 96% to 82%. The main fuel characteristics of the biodiesel were tested and most of these were found within the range specified by ASTM D-6751.

Recycling calcium oxide nanoparticles for sustainable biodiesel production from nonedible feedstock Argemone mexicana L.

Biodiesel, seen as a key alternative to fossil fuels, has drawn significant attention. In this study, we synthesised calcium oxide (CaO) nanoparticles and assessed their catalytic efficiency for biodiesel production from the nonedible seed oil of Argemone mexicana L. The nanoparticles were thoroughly characterised using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR), and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) techniques. ASTM standard procedures were used to evaluate the fuel properties of biodiesel. Qualitative and quantitative analysis of biodiesel was conducted using gas chromatography –mass spectrometry (GC-MS), FT-IR, nuclear magnetic resonance (1H-NMR), and nuclear mangnetic resonance (13C-NMR). For biodiesel synthesis, the transesterification method was followed. The synthesised nanoparticles have a size of 28 nm, and the feedstock contains 43% oil content. Optimal biodiesel yield (96%) was achieved with a 1:9 oil to methanol ratio, 15 mg of catalyst, a temperature of 55 °C, and a reaction time of 50 min. Notably, the catalytic activity of CaO nanoparticles was diminished with repeated use. Most fuel properties were confirmed to the ASTM standard ranges. The results suggest the viability of the feedstock for large-scale biodiesel production.