Reduction In Transepithelial Electrical Resistance Research Articles

MiR-130a and miR-212 Disrupt the Intestinal Epithelial Barrier through Modulation of PPARγ and Occludin Expression in Chronic Simian Immunodeficiency Virus-Infected Rhesus Macaques.

Intestinal epithelial barrier dysfunction is a well-known sequela of HIV/SIV infection that persists despite antiretroviral therapy. Although inflammation is a triggering factor, the underlying molecular mechanisms remain unknown. Emerging evidence suggests that epithelial barrier function is epigenetically regulated by inflammation-induced microRNAs (miRNAs). Accordingly, we profiled and characterized miRNA/mRNA expression exclusively in colonic epithelium and identified 46 differentially expressed miRNAs (20 upregulated and 26 downregulated) in chronically SIV-infected rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). We bioinformatically crossed the predicted miRNA targets to transcriptomic data and characterized miR-130a and miR-212 as both were predicted to interact with critical epithelial barrier-associated genes. Next, we characterized peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ) and occludin (OCLN), predicted targets of miR-130a and miR-212, respectively, as their downregulation has been strongly linked to epithelial barrier disruption and dysbiosis. Immunofluorescence, luciferase reporter, and overexpression studies confirmed the ability of miR-130a and miR-212 to decrease protein expression of PPARγ and OCLN, respectively, and reduce transepithelial electrical resistance. Because Δ-9-tetrahydrocannabinol exerted protective effects in the intestine in our previous studies, we successfully used it to reverse miR-130a- and miR-212-mediated reduction in transepithelial electrical resistance. Finally, ex vivo Δ-9-tetrahydrocannabinol treatment of colon tissue from chronically SIV-infected rhesus macaques significantly increased PPARγ expression. Our findings suggest that dysregulated miR-130a and miR-212 expression in colonic epithelium during chronic HIV/SIV infection can facilitate epithelial barrier disruption by downregulating OCLN and PPARγ expression. Most importantly, our results highlight the beneficial effects of cannabinoids on epithelial barrier function in not just HIV/SIV but potentially other chronic intestinal inflammatory diseases.

Green tea polyphenols enhance gingival keratinocyte integrity and protect against invasion by Porphyromonas gingivalis.

The gingival epithelium, a stratified squamous tissue that acts as an interface between the external environment and the underlying connective tissue, plays an active role in maintaining periodontal health. The aim of the present study was to investigate the ability of green tea catechins to enhance gingival epithelial barrier function and protect against the disruption of epithelial integrity induced by Porphyromonas gingivalis. Both the green tea extract and epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) dose- and time-dependently increased the transepithelial electrical resistance (TER) of a gingival keratinocyte model and decreased the permeability of the cell monolayer to fluorescein isothyocyanate-conjugated 4.4-kDa dextran. This was associated with the increased expression of zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1) and occludin, two tight junction proteins. Treating the gingival keratinocyte monolayer with P. gingivalis caused a reduction in TER and affected the distribution of ZO-1 and occludin, allowing P. gingivalis to translocate through the cell monolayer. These deleterious effects mediated by P. gingivalis were abolished by the green tea extract and EGCG. This protection may be in part related to the ability of tea catechins to inhibit the protease activities of P. gingivalis. Given the above properties, green tea catechins may represent promising preventive and therapeutic molecules against periodontal disease.

Artificial sweetener saccharin disrupts intestinal epithelial cells' barrier function in vitro.

Consumption of non-nutritive sweeteners (NNS) is a dietary practice used by those who wish to lose weight or by patients on a sugar-restricted diet such as those with DM2. Although these substances are safe, possible biological interactions with the digestive tract, particularly in relation to intestinal permeability, have not been studied. Thus, the current work sought to investigate the action of different NNS on intestinal permeability using an in vitro Caco-2 cell model. Caco-2 cells were incubated with acesulfame K, aspartame, saccharin, or sucralose at equimolar concentrations. Acesulfame K, aspartame, and sucralose did not disrupt monolayer integrity in the cells. However, saccharin increased paracellular permeability and decreased transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER) via a non-cytotoxic mechanism. The levels of the tight junction protein claudin-1 were reduced in Caco-2 cells that had previously been exposed to saccharin. The inhibition of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) was able to prevent the reduction in TEER induced by saccharin treatment. Thalidomide, as an inhibitor of ubiquitin ligase, was able to prevent the decrease in claudin-1 protein expression and the TEER reduction in Caco-2 cells. Saccharin disrupts monolayer integrity and alters paracellular permeability in a Caco-2 cell monolayer model, via a mechanism involving NF-κB activation, resulting in the ubiquitination of the tight junction protein claudin-1. Saccharin consumption may potentially alter the intestinal integrity in humans.

Short-Chain Fatty Acids Manifest Stimulative and Protective Effects on Intestinal Barrier Function Through the Inhibition of NLRP3 Inflammasome and Autophagy

Background/Aims: Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) are the major energy resources of intestinal epithelial cells. It has been reported that SCFAs can repair the dysfunction of intestinal barrier, however, the underlying mechanisms are still not fully understood. Here, we investigated the stimulative and protective effects of SCFAs on intestinal barrier function and the possible mechanisms. Methods: To investigate the effects of SCFAs on intestinal barrier function, the Caco-2 monolayers were exposed to acetate, propionate, butyrate respectively or simultaneously without or with lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Next, Caco-2 cells were treated with trichostatin A and etomoxir to identify whether SCFAs act as HDAC inhibitors or energy substances. To activate NLRP3 inflammasome and autophagy, Caco-2 cells were treated with LPS+ATP and rapamycin respectively without or with SCFAs. The transepithelial electrical resistance (TER) and paracellular permeability were respectively detected with a Millicell-ERS voltohmmeter and fluorescein isothiocyanate-labeled dextran. Immunoblotting and immunofluorescence were applied to analyze the expression and distribution of tight junction proteins, and the activation of NLRP3 inflammasome and autophagy. Results: Acetate (0.5mM), propionate(0.01mM) and butyrate (0.01mM) alone or in combination significantly increased TER, and stimulated the formation of tight junction. SCFAs also dramatically attenuated the LPS-induced TER reduction and paracellular permeability increase, accompanying significantly alleviated morphological disruption of ZO-1 and occludin. Meanwhile, the activation of NLRP3 inflammasome and autophagy induced by LPS were significantly inhibited by SCFAs. Trichostatin A imitated the inhibiting action of SCFAs on NLRP3 inflammasome, whereas etomoxir blocked the action of SCFAs on protecting intestinal barrier and inhibiting autophagy. In addition, the activation of autophagy and NLRP3 inflammasome by rapamycin and LPS+ATP resulted in TER reduction, paracellular permeability increase and morphological disruption of both ZO-1 and occludin, which was alleviated by SCFAs. Conclusion: It is suggested that SCFAs stimulate the formation of intestinal barrier, and protect the intestinal barrier from the disruption of LPS through inhibiting NLRP3 inflammasome and autophagy. In addition, SCFAs act as energy substances to protect intestinal barrier and inhibit autophagy, but act as HDAC inhibitors to suppress NLRP3 inflammasome. Furthermore, the mutual promoting action between NLRP3 inflammasome and autophagy would destroy intestinal barrier function, which could be alleviated by SCFAs.

Topical protection of mice laryngeal mucosa using the natural product cashew gum.

Evaluate the effect of in vitro exposure of mice laryngeal mucosa to solutions that simulated human gastric juice and to assess the topical protective effect of cashew gum on mice laryngeal mucosal integrity in vitro. Animal study. Murine (Swiss) laryngeal samples were mounted in Ussing chambers. The luminal side of biopsies was exposed to solutions of different acidity with or without pepsin and/or taurodeoxycholic acid (TDC). Transepithelial electrical resistance (TER) was continuously recorded. The topical protective effect of cashew gum solution was evaluated by precoating the biopsies before the exposure with a solution at pH 5 containing 5 mM TDC. Changes in TER and mucosal permeability to fluorescein were measured. Exposure of laryngeal mucosa to acidic solutions containing pepsin and TDC provoked a pH-dependent drop in TER with the maximal effect at pH 1, but still present at pH 5 (weakly acidic). The exposure of the laryngeal mucosa to a solution of pH 5 with TDC, but not with pepsin, produced a dose-dependent decrease in TER. Precoating the mucosa with cashew gum prevented the reduction of TER and increased transepithelial permeability by exposure to a solution at pH5 containing TDC. Weakly acidic solutions containing bile acids can produce impairment of laryngeal epithelial barrier, which may be protected by topical treatment with cashew gum. NA. Laryngoscope, 128:1157-1162, 2018.

Delta-toxin from Clostridium perfringens perturbs intestinal epithelial barrier function in Caco-2 cell monolayers

Clostridium perfringens delta-toxin is a β-barrel-pore-forming toxin (β-PFT) and a presumptive virulence factor of type B and C strains, which are causative organisms of fatal intestinal diseases in animals. We showed previously that delta-toxin causes cytotoxicity via necrosis in sensitive cells. Here, we examined the effect of delta-toxin on intestinal membrane integrity. Delta-toxin led to a reduction in transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER) and increased the permeability of fluorescence isothiocyanate-conjugated dextran in human intestinal epithelial Caco-2 cells without changing the tight junction proteins, such as zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1), occludin, and claudin-1. On the other hand, delta-toxin reduced the cellular levels of adherence junction protein E-cadherin before cell injury. A disintegrin and metalloprotease (ADAM) 10 facilitates E-cadherin cleavage and was identified as the cellular receptor for alpha-toxin, a β-PFT produced by Staphylococcus aureus. ADAM10 inhibitor (GI254023X) blocked the toxin-induced decrease in TEER and cleavage of E-cadherin. Delta-toxin enhanced ADAM10 activity in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Furthermore, delta-toxin colocalized with ADAM10. These results indicated that ADAM10 plays a key role in delta-toxin-induced intestinal injury.

The interaction of dendrimer-doxorubicin conjugates with a model pulmonary epithelium and their cosolvent-free, pseudo-solution formulations in pressurized metered-dose inhalers

Oral inhalation (OI) of nano-chemotherapeutics holds great potentials in the treatment of lung cancers as it enables direct targeting of drugs to lung tissues, spatial and temporal control of drug release, and decrease in drug-associated systemic and local lung toxicity. Therefore, the design of chemistry of the nanocarriers and their OI formulations for chemotherapeutics delivery to the peripheral lungs and extrapulmonary tissues of relevance such as lymph nodes, may thus afford new opportunities for treating such relevant diseases. In this work we investigated the effect of polyethylene glycol 1000Da (PEG1000) density and doxorubicin (DOX) payload on the interaction of poly(amidoamine) dendrimer (PAMAM) with an in vitro pulmonary epithelium model (Calu-3). DOX, which was conjugated to the PAMAM through a pH-labile bond, showed a strong time-dependent cell kill against Calu-3 cells due to sustained DOX release. The conjugation of DOX to PEGylated PAMAM dendrimers significantly enhances DOX transport across pulmonary epithelium compared to free drug, with the rate of transport increasing as PEGylation degree increases. Transient interaction of PEGylated dendrimers with cellular junctions of the polarized epithelium as probed by a reduction in transepithelial electrical resistance, faster mucus diffusion, along with reduced cellular internalization compared to the non-PEGylated counterpart promotes transport across the epithelial barrier. A cosolvent free method was developed to formulate PEGylated PAMAM-DOX conjugates in pressurized metered-dose inhalers. The resulting aerosol formulations show a very high final particle fractions (>82%). We further demonstrate that aerodynamic particle size distribution of the nanoconjugates can be tweaked with the addition of a biodegradable lactide-based copolymer, which may help tune lung deposition of PAMAM-DOX conjugates to a specific pulmonary area. The combined results suggest that conjugation to PAMAM dendrimers and their surface modification with PEG1000 can be utilized to modulate the transport of DOX across pulmonary epithelium, and also to easily formulate the conjugates in propellant-based inhalers for pulmonary administration of anticancer therapeutics.

Impact of zinc oxide nanoparticles on an in vitro model of the human air-blood barrier

The inhalation of zinc oxide nanoparticles (nZnO) may induce systemic diseases, damages to the alveolar epithelium and inflammatory response to endothelial cells. In this work the use of an in vitro air-blood barrier (ABB) model provided a tool to elucidate the biological mechanisms underlying the potential effects of inhaled nanoparticles (NPs). The ABB model used is composed of a Transwell co-culture of a lung epithelial cell line (NCI-H441) and an immortalized pulmonary microvascular endothelial cell line (HPMEC-ST1.6R). In addition, a tri-culture model was developed by adding monocytes (THP-1) on the basal compartment of the inserts. These models have been set up to analyse the importance of the interplay among the different cell types on various responses after nZnO exposure: inflammation, endothelial damage and modulation of the immune system. The barrier integrity was assessed by measuring the transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER); the pro-inflammatory and immune cells responses were analysed by ELISA. The results have evidenced that nZnO do not affect the barrier integrity, since no TEER reduction was measured after 24h of exposure, but an activation of endothelial cells, which released pro-inflammatory mediators (IL-6, IL-8), and endothelial dysfunction markers (sICAM-1 and sVCAM-1) were induced. These results confirm that apical exposure to NPs promote endothelium activation. The in vitro-ABB model here used is thus a useful tool able to evidence the interaction between lung epithelium and endothelium in inducing biological response, and the role of endothelium dysfunction following NPs inhalation.

Rebeccamycin Attenuates TNF-α-Induced Intestinal Epithelial Barrier Dysfunction by Inhibiting Myosin Light Chain Kinase Production

Background/Aims: Although proinflammatory cytokine–induced disruption of intestinal epithelial barrier integrity is associated with intestinal inflammatory disease, effective treatment for barrier dysfunction is lacking. Previously, we demonstrated that rebeccamycin alleviates epithelial barrier dysfunction induced by inflammatory cytokines in Caco-2 cell monolayers; however, the underlying mechanism remained unclear. Here, we investigated the mechanism by which rebeccamycin protects the epithelial barrier function of Caco-2 cells exposed to TNF-α. Methods: To confirm the epithelial barrier function of Caco-2 cell monolayers, transepithelial electrical resistance (TER) and paracellular permeability were measured. Production levels and localization of tight junction (TJ) proteins were analyzed by immunoblot and immunofluorescence, respectively. Phosphorylated myosin light chain (pMLC) and MLC kinase (MLCK) mRNA expression levels were determined by immunoblot and quantitative RT-PCR, respectively. Results: Rebeccamycin attenuated the TNF-α-induced reduction in TER and increase in paracellular permeability. Rebeccamycin increased claudin-5 expression, but not claudin-1, -2, -4, occludin or ZO-1 expression, and prevented the TNF-α-induced changes in ZO-1 and occludin localization. Rebeccamycin suppressed the TNF-α-induced increase in MLCK mRNA expression, thus suppressing MLC phosphorylation. The rebeccamycin-mediated reduction in MLCK production and protection of epithelial barrier function were alleviated by Chk1 inhibition. Conclusion: Rebeccamycin attenuates TNF-α-induced disruption of intestinal epithelial barrier integrity by inducing claudin-5 expression and suppressing MLCK production via Chk1 activation.

Acute Acrolein Exposure Induces Impairment of Vocal Fold Epithelial Barrier Function.

Acrolein is a ubiquitous pollutant abundant in cigarette smoke, mobile exhaust, and industrial waste. There is limited literature on the effects of acrolein on vocal fold tissue, although there are clinical reports of voice changes after pollutant exposures. Vocal folds are responsible for voice production. The overall objective of this study was to investigate the effects of acrolein exposure on viable, excised vocal fold epithelial tissue and to characterize the mechanism underlying acrolein toxicity. Vocal fold epithelia were studied because they form the outermost layer of the vocal folds and are a primary recipient of inhaled pollutants. Porcine vocal fold epithelia were exposed to 0, 50, 100, 500, 900 or 1300 μM of acrolein for 3 hours; the metabolic activity, epithelial resistance, epithelial permeability, tight junction protein (occludin and claudin 3) expression, cell membrane integrity and lipid peroxidation were investigated. The data demonstrated that acrolein exposure at 500 μM significantly reduced vocal fold epithelial metabolic activity by 27.2% (p≤0.001). Incubation with 100 μM acrolein caused a marked increase in epithelial permeability by 130.5% (p<0.05) and a reduction in transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER) by 180.0% (p<0.001). While the expression of tight junctional protein did not change in acrolein-treated samples, the cell membrane integrity was significantly damaged with a 45.6% increase of lipid peroxidation as compared to controls (p<0.05). Taken together, these data provide evidence that acute acrolein exposure impairs vocal fold epithelial barrier integrity. Lipid peroxidation-induced cell membrane damage may play an important role in reducing the barrier function of the epithelium.

An Assessment of the Permeation Enhancer, 1-phenyl-piperazine (PPZ), on Paracellular Flux Across Rat Intestinal Mucosae in Ussing Chambers.

1-phenyl piperazine (PPZ) emerged from a Caco-2 monolayer screen as having high enhancement potential due to a capacity to increase permeation without significant toxicity. Our aim was to further explore the efficacy and toxicity of PPZ in rat ileal and colonic mucosae in order to assess its true translation potential. Intestinal mucosae were mounted in Ussing chambers and apparent permeability coefficient (Papp) values of [(14)C]-mannitol and FITC-dextran 4kDa (FD-4) and transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER) values were obtained following apical addition of PPZ (0.6-60mM). Exposed issues were assessed for toxicity by histopathology and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release. Mucosal recovery after exposure was also assessed using TEER readings. PPZ reversibly increased the Papp of both agents across rat ileal and distal colonic mucosae in concentration-dependent fashion, accompanied by TEER reduction, with acceptable levels of tissue damage. The complex mechanism of tight junction opening was part mediated by myosin light chain kinase, stimulation of transepithelial electrogenic chloride secretion, and involved activation of 5-HT4 receptors. PPZ is an efficacious and benign intestinal permeation enhancer in tissue mucosae. However, its active pharmacology suggest that potential for further development in an oral formulation for poorly permeable molecules will be difficult.

Efficacy of a New Ocular Surface Modulator in Restoring Epithelial Changes in an In Vitro Model of Dry Eye Syndrome

ABSTRACTPurpose: So far tear substitutes have demonstrated a limited role in restoring ocular surface damage in dry eye syndrome (DES). The aim of this study was to assess the efficacy of a new ocular surface modulator in an in vitro model of human corneal epithelium (HCE) damaged by severe osmotic stress mirroring the features of dry eye conditions.Methods: A reconstructed HCE model challenged by the introduction of sorbitol in the culture medium for 16 h was used to induce an inflammatory pathway and to impair the tight junctions integrity determining a severe modification of the superficial layer ultrastructure. At the end of the overnight stress period in the treated HCE series, 30 μl of the ocular surface modulator (T-LysYal, Sildeha, Switzerland) and of hyaluronic acid (HA) in the control HCE series were applied for 24 h. The following parameters were quantified: scanning electron microscopy (SEM), trans-epithelial electrical resistance (TEER), immunofluorescence analysis of integrin β1 (ITG-β1), mRNA expression of Cyclin D-1 (CCND1), and ITG-β1.Results: In the positive control after the osmotic stress the HCE surface damage was visible at the ultrastructural level with loss of cell–cell interconnections, intercellular matrix destruction, and TEER reduction. After 24 h of treatment with T-LysYal, HCE showed a significant improvement of the ultrastructural morphological organization and increased expression of ITG-β1 at the tissue level when compared to positive and control series. A significant increase of mRNA expression for ITG-β1 and CCND1 was shown in the HA-treated cells compared to T-LysYal. TEER measurement showed a significant reduction in all groups after 16 h without modifications after the treatment period.Conclusions: This study has shown the possibility of a new class of agents denominated ocular surface modulators to restore corneal cells damaged by dry eye conditions. Further in vivo studies are certainly necessary to confirm these results.

Protective effects of Lactobacillus plantarum on epithelial barrier disruption caused by enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli in intestinal porcine epithelial cells

Tight junctions (TJs) play an important role in maintaining the mucosal barrier function and gastrointestinal health of animals. Lactobacillus plantarum (L. plantarum) was reported to protect the intestinal barrier function of early-weaned piglets against enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) K88 challenge; however, the underlying cellular mechanism of this protection was unclear. Here, an established intestinal porcine epithelia cell (IPEC-J2) model was used to investigate the protective effects and related mechanisms of L. plantarum on epithelial barrier damages induced by ETEC K88. Epithelial permeability, expression of inflammatory cytokines, and abundance of TJ proteins, were determined. Pre-treatment with L. plantarum for 6h prevented the reduction in transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER) (P<0.05), inhibited the increased transcript abundances of interleukin-8 (IL-8) and tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α) (P<0.05), decreased expression of claudin-1, occludin and zonula occludens (ZO-1) (P<0.05) and protein expression of occludin (P<0.05) of IPEC-J2 cells caused by ETEC K88. Moreover, the mRNA expression of negative regulators of toll-like receptors (TLRs) [single Ig Il-1-related receptor (SIGIRR), B-cell CLL/lymphoma 3 (Bcl3), and mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphatase-1 (MKP-1)] in IPEC-J2 cells pre-treated with L. plantarum were higher (P<0.05) compared with those in cells just exposed to K88. Furthermore, L. plantarum was shown to regulate proteins of nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathways. These results indicated that L. plantarum may improve epithelial barrier function by maintenance of TEER, inhibiting the reduction of TJ proteins, and reducing the expression of proinflammatory cytokines induced by ETEC K88, possibly through modulation of TLRs, NF-κB and MAPK pathways.

The endogenous cannabinoid anandamide increases human airway epithelial cell permeability through an arachidonic acid metabolite

Injury to the bronchial epithelium in respiratory diseases such as asthma and COPD results in the loss of barrier function and an elevated sensitivity to environmental insults. An increased release of the endogenous cannabinoid, anandamide in response to inhalation of allergen in asthmatic patients has been reported. The aim of this study was, therefore, to determine the effects of endocannabinoids on bronchial epithelial cell permeability and to investigate the mechanisms involved.Calu-3 human bronchial epithelial cells were cultured at air–liquid interface to allow development of tight junctions. Changes in Transepithelial Electrical Resistance (TEER), a reflection of epithelial permeability, were measured at various time points post-treatment, and expression of the tight junction proteins, occludin and ZO-1, were determined using Western immunoblotting.Anandamide produced a significant reduction in TEER, which was unaffected by cannabinoid receptor antagonists, but attenuated by URB597, an inhibitor of fatty acid amide hydrolase, and by a combination of cyclooxygenase (COX) and lipoxygenase (LOX) blockade. The anandamide metabolite, arachidonic acid, showed similar TEER decrease that was also prevented in the presence of COX and LOX inhibitor. Expression of occludin and ZO-1 were also reduced by anandamide.These findings indicate a pro-inflammatory-like effect of anandamide on bronchial epithelial permeability, mediated by cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase metabolites, and suggest that inhibition of anandamide degradation might provide a novel approach to treat airway inflammation.

A Novel Method Using Quantum Dots for Testing the Barrier Function of Cultured Epithelial Cell Sheets.

The corneal epithelium provides a barrier to protect the deeper structures of the eye from any particles or pathogens. Cultured epithelial cell sheets are used in transplantation surgery for corneal repair or regeneration. The purpose of this study was to develop a novel method using fluorescent quantum dot nanoparticles for validating the quality and barrier function of cultured epithelial cell sheets. Human function epithelial cell sheets, cultured from oral mucosal or corneal limbal cells, were incubated in either normal calcium-containing medium or medium containing no calcium with a calcium chelator. Also contained in the media were suspensions of two different sizes of quantum dots. Following incubation, analysis of quantum dot penetration was carried out using confocal microscopy. In contrast to the cell sheets incubated in calcium-containing medium, removal of extracellular calcium resulted in the disruption of tight junctions, compromising the cell sheet's barrier function. This caused a reduction in transepithelial electrical resistance and deeper, more ubiquitous penetration of the quantum dots into the paracellular space and interior of the cell sheet. This method provides easy to interpret qualitative and quantitative data on the functionality of a cell sheet's tight junctions, as well as nanoscale and microscale structural information on its surface and interior morphology, and any localized areas of damage or abnormality. This novel technique could be used as part of the validation system for cultured epithelial cell sheets for use in transplantation.

Epac1 Regulates Intestinal Epithelial Barrier Function by Recruiting JAM‐A via RAP2C‐TNIK Signaling Pathway

cAMP is one of the most potent signaling molecule to stabilize epithelial barrier function. However, the regulatory mechanism by novel cAMP effector, Exchange Protein directly Activated by cAMP (Epac1) is unknown. Incubating T84 cells with Epac1 agonist 8‐pCPT‐2′‐O‐Me‐cAMP or cAMP elevating agent forskolin (FSK) in presence of PKA inhibitor H89, caused transient reduction of Transepithelial Electrical Resistance (TER) that restored to normal value after short period of time while FSK alone drastically lower TER and disrupt TJ integrity. T84 cells with silenced Epac1 protein (Epac1KDT84) had reduced TER, increased paracellular flux of 4kDa FITC‐dextran and decreased paracellular permeability of Na+. Confocal study revealed mislocalization of major TJ protein, Junctional Adhesion Molecule‐A (JAM‐A) in Epac1KDT84 cells while no such change was observed in other TJ protein such as occludin. Surface biotinylation assay showed reduced band intensity of JAM‐A in Epac1KDT84 cells than in T84 cells. Silencing downstream Epac1 effector Rap2C and TNIK had similar changes in TER and flux as observed in Epac1KDT84 cells. Preincubating T84 cells with recycling endosome inhibitor, primaquine caused reduced surface expression of JAM‐A which was not observed in Epac1KDT84 cells. Shigella flexneri 2a infected T84 cells showed high expression of Epac1 protein while invasion rate of Shigella significantly increased in Epac1KDT84 cells. We conclude that Epac1 regulates intestinal barrier function by recruiting JAM‐A at the level of tight junction by a novel Rap2C‐TNIK signaling pathway which may have therapeutic value in treating inflammatory diarrhea.

The Ability of Serine Proteases to Induce an Increase in Barrier Function is Dependent on the Tight Junction Protein Occludin

Inflammatory mediators disrupt the tight junction and may contribute to the pathogenesis of IBD through modulation of barrier function. We have found that serine proteases such as trypsin and matriptase induce an increase in barrier function in intestinal epithelial cell lines. However we do not know if they can reverse barrier disruption induced by inflammation, or how they modulate components of the tight junction (TJ). The SCBN canine epithelial cell line was mounted in Ussing chambers and barrier function assessed by 4 kDa FITC‐dextran flux and transepithelial electrical resistance (TER) measurement. Apical treatment with trypsin (45 BAU/mL) or matriptase (0.5 BAU/mL) induces a rapid and sustained increase in TER and decrease in FITC‐dextran flux. Treatment of cells with IFNγ and TNFα for 48 hours induced a dose‐dependent increase in permeability and redistribution of claudin‐4, tricellulin, and occludin from the TJ, as assessed by confocal immunofluorescence. The higher the doses of cytokines, the less able trypsin or matriptase could induce an increase in TER or decrease in FITC flux. Knockdown of occludin using siRNA resulted in a 39.8% reduction in baseline TER but no change in FITC‐dextran flux. Occludin knockdown induced a 74.1% and 90.6% reduction in the ability of trypsin and matriptase, respectively, to induce an increase in TER. Phosphorylation status of myosin light chain was assessed by Phos‐tag acrylamide Western blotting and no changes were observed with serine protease treatment. Thus, during inflammatory conditions, cytokines alter tight junctional structure and occludin localization; causing serine proteases to lose their ability to enhance epithelial barrier function.

1α,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 counteracts the effects of cigarette smoke in airway epithelial cells

Cigarette smoke extracts (CSE) alter calpain-1 expression via ERK signaling pathway in bronchial epithelial cells. 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (1,25D3) inhibits cigarette smoke-induced epithelial barrier disruption.This study was aimed to explore whether the 1,25D3 counteracted the CSE effects in a human bronchial epithelial cell line (16HBE). In particular, transepithelial electrical resistance (TER) and permeability, expression and distribution of E-cadherin and β-catenin, calpain-1 expression, and ERK phosphorylation were assessed in the CSE-stimulated 16HBE cells. The CSE induced the ERK phosphorylation, improved the calpain-1 expression, increased the distribution anomalies and the cleaving of E-cadherin and β-catenin, and resulted in the TER reduction and the permeability increase. The 1,25D3 reduced these pathological changes. The 1,25D3 mediated effects were associated with a reduced ERK phosphorylation.In conclusion, the present study provides compelling evidences that the 1,25D3 may be considered a possible valid therapeutic option in controlling the cigarette smoke-induced epithelial barrier disruption.

Ghrelin ameliorates intestinal barrier dysfunction in experimental colitis by inhibiting the activation of nuclear factor-kappa B

AimThis study aimed to investigate the effect and underlying mechanism of ghrelin on intestinal barrier dysfunction in dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitis. Methods and resultsAcute colitis was induced in C57BL/6J mice by administering 2.5% DSS. Saline or 25, 125, 250 μg/kg ghrelin was administrated intraperitoneally (IP) to mice 1 day before colitis induction and on days 4, 5, and 6 after DSS administration. IP injection of a ghrelin receptor antagonist, [D-lys3]-GHRP-6, was performed immediately prior to ghrelin injection. Ghrelin (125 or 250 μg/kg) could reduce the disease activity index, histological score, and myeloperoxidase activities in experimental colitis, and also prevented shortening of the colon. Ghrelin could prevent the reduction of transepithelial electrical resistance and tight junction expression, and bolstered tight junction structural integrity and regulated cytokine secretion. Ultimately, ghrelin inhibited nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), inhibitory κB-α, myosin light chain kinase, and phosphorylated myosin light chain 2 activation. ConclusionsGhrelin prevented the breakdown of intestinal barrier function in DSS-induced colitis. The protective effects of ghrelin on intestinal barrier function were mediated by its receptor GHSR-1a. The inhibition of NF-κB activation might be part of the mechanism underlying the effects of ghrelin that protect against barrier dysfunction.

Homoharringtonine increases intestinal epithelial permeability by modulating specific claudin isoforms in Caco-2 cell monolayers

Homoharringtonine (HHT), a natural alkaloid produced by various Cephalotaxus species, has antileukemic activity in acute and chronic myelogenous leukemia. However, HHT can also induce unanticipated effects in the gastrointestinal tract, such as diarrhea and nausea/vomiting, but the mechanism behind these adverse effects has not been clarified. In the present study, we show that HHT affects the epithelial permeability of intestinal Caco-2 cell monolayers. HHT reduced the transepithelial electrical resistance (TER) of Caco-2 cells in a dose- and time-dependent manner. The HHT effect was reversible and no cytotoxicity was observed at the concentrations used. HHT simultaneously increased the paracellular flux of the 4kDa and 40kDa FITC-dextrans associated with the TER reduction. Immunoblotting analysis revealed that HHT decreased the protein expression of TJ components such as claudin-3, -5, and -7. However, the transcription levels of these claudins were not repressed by HHT treatment. HHT also disturbed the cellular localization of claudin-1 and -4. These changes coincided with the reduced barrier function. Our findings suggest that HHT enhances the paracellular permeability of Caco-2 cell monolayers by modulating the protein expression and localization of claudin isoforms; these actions might be responsible for the gastrointestinal effects of HHT.