Transcendent States Research Articles

Development and Validation of the Transcendent Beliefs Scale (TBS): A 12-Item Assessment of Self-Transcendent States

Objective: The purpose of this study was to develop and validate the Transcendent Beliefs Scale (TBS). We defined transcendent experiences as an experience of unity with others and the whole of existence, which is associated with behavioral, cognitive, emotional, and transcendental factors. Our aim was to develop a very brief instrument that accurately reflected the phenomenology of transcendent states. Keywords: trauma, chronic pain, dissociation, EFT, EMDR, mindful breathing, bilateral stimulation, BLS, WHEE, HeartMath, blended, combined, interventions Method: The factor structure, validity, and reliability of the TBS were assessed across a sample of university students and energy therapy practitioners (N = 305). Results: With respect to convergent validity, we found that transcendent experiences were positively correlated with daily spiritual experiences, trait hope, and meaning in life. Discriminant validity was demonstrated through a negative weak relationship to narcissistic personality traits. Exploratory factor analysis reduced the scale to 12 items and a two-factor model was found to fit the data. Conclusion: The results indicate that the TBS is a valid and reliable scale to measure transcendent beliefs in the general population. It is suitable for research projects in which a brief measure of transcendence is required. Keywords: transcendent beliefs, transcendent experiences, universal oneness, scale validation, unity consciousness, existence, transcendental phenomenology.

Contribution of Affect and Cognition in Shaping Aesthetic Responses

The human experience of art is unique, being associated with exceptional and transcendent states of consciousness. These experiences are formed based on the interaction between the work of art itself, the observer, and the context. Using the multilevel modelling with crossed random effects analysis, we explored the connection between the affective and cognitive appraisals of a visual work of art and the aesthetic judgment. Two experiments were performed. In the first, lay persons appraised figural paintings with pleasant and unpleasant content. In the second experiment, abstract and realistic paintings were appraised. The results indicate a strong connection between affective appraisal and the aesthetic judgment, especially with the assessment of beauty. Cognitive appraisals are less closely connected to aesthetic appraisals. These results suggest that naive observers use everyday, practical perception when evaluating works of art, and that paintings which evoke "sweet", pleasant, hedonic emotions will be assessed as more aesthetically pleasing. The deviation of a painting from traditional art canons further strengthens the reliance on everyday perception in lay persons. The implications of these results are discussed.

Silenced Tongues, Speaking Bodies: The Representation of Postcolonial Bodies in Incarceration in Tahar Ben Jelloun’s This Blinding Absence of Light

This paper examines the representation of postcolonial bodies in incarceration in postcolonial Morocco in Tahar Ben Jelloun’s This Blinding Absence of Light. This representation is explored in light of two different literary theories and concepts: Julia Kristeva’s “abject bodies”, and Arthur Frank’s “disciplined bodies”. The first concept “abject bodies” mirrors the postcolonial oppressive regime’s desired representation of the political detainees’ bodies as raw and primitive, loathsome and excluded, and dehumanized and desexualized. Such degrading representation triggers feelings of humiliation, estrangement, denial, and alienation on the part of the prisoners, creating an identity crisis and a self and other dilemma. However, the second concept “disciplined bodies” serves as a tool of resistance, since the prisoners introduce a counter-representation of their bodies that defies the one prescribed and depicted by the state. By practicing self- control and regimentation over their bodies, the prisoners are able to reach a state of spiritual transcendence through their permeable bodies, a state that helps them escape their corporeal reality of suffering and abjection into the sublime ethereal realms of meditation, emancipation, renewal, inspiration, and ultimate power.

Effect of virtual group EcoMeditation on psychological conditions and flow states.

A plethora of literature has delineated the therapeutic benefits of meditation practice on psychological functioning. A novel meditative practice, EcoMeditation, includes elements of four evidence-based techniques: The Quick Coherence Technique for regulating heart rate variability (HRV), Emotional Freedom Techniques (EFT), mindfulness, and neurofeedback. Changes in psychological symptoms, including anxiety, depression, posttraumatic stress, pain, and happiness were measured following a one-day virtual EcoMeditation training workshop. The current study extended on previous literature by adding measures of transcendent experiences and flow states. Participants were drawn from a convenience sample of 151 participants (130 female, 21 male) aged between 26 to 71 years (M = 45.1, SD = 9.19) attending a one-day virtual EcoMeditation workshop. They were assessed pre-workshop, post-workshop, and at 3-months follow-up. Post-workshop results (N = 111) indicated a significant reduction in anxiety (-42.3%, p < 0.001), depression (-37.5%, p < 0.001), posttraumatic stress (-13.0%, p < 0.001), and pain (-63.2%, p < 0.001) Likert mean scores when compared to pre-workshop. There was also a significant increase in happiness (+111.1%, p < 0.001), flow states (+17.4%, p < 0.001), and transcendent experiences (+18.5%, p < 0.001). At 3-months follow-up, a one-way repeated measures ANOVA (N = 72) found significant decreases in anxiety, depression, and pain symptoms between pre-test and post-test, as well between pre-test and follow-up. Flow, happiness, and transcendent experiences increased significantly between pre-test and post-test, as well as between pre-test and follow-up, with over 71% of participants experiencing clinically significant improvements. Significant reductions in posttraumatic stress and depression symptoms between pre-test and follow-up were also noted. EcoMeditation is associated with significant improvements in psychological conditions such as anxiety, depression, pain, and posttraumatic stress. EcoMeditation was also shown to enhance flow states and transcendent experiences. The benefits identified were similar to those found in the existing literature and provide support for the use of EcoMeditation as an effective stress reduction method that improves psychological symptoms and enhances transcendent states.

Theater of Ancestral Mediation

Theater of Ancestral Mediation

The biological dimensions of transcendent states: A randomized controlled trial.

This study evaluated the biological dimension of meditation and self-transcendent states. A convenience sample of 513 participants was drawn from attendees at a 4-day guided meditation workshop. Half were randomly assigned to an active placebo control intervention. All were assessed on a variety of measures, both psychological [anxiety, pain, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), positive emotions, and transcendent states], and physiological (physical functioning). Additional biological assessments including salivary immunoglobulin-A (SIgA), cortisol, and Quantitative Electroencephalography (qEEG) were obtained from subset of the Experimental group (N = 117). No significant difference in psychological symptoms or positive emotions was observed between Experimental and placebo groups at baseline. At post-test, significant improvements were noted in the Experimental group, including a 49.5% median increase in SIgA (p = 0.01), though cortisol remained unchanged. qEEG z-score analysis identified sustained stress reduction, including delta frequency band amplitude increases, high beta decreases, and faster acquisition of sustained alpha states (all p < 0.001). Psychological symptoms also improved on all measures. At 6-month follow-up (N = 140), PTSD and somatic symptoms significantly improved from baseline, and post-test versus 6-month follow-up results indicated significant increases in happiness and spiritual and physical oneness, along with decreases in depressive symptoms. These findings suggest that autonomic self-regulation and transcendent states may be measured in both biological and psychological dimensions and are associated with pervasive health benefits.

Narrative as Metaphor: Inquiry on the Effects of Metaphors in Narrative Paradigms

本文探討隱喻在敘說研究或敘說心理學中的關鍵作用與意涵，並從方法、方法論，再到認識論及本體論，逐層討論。在方法層次中，隱喻能在諮商中協助參考架構、世界觀之轉換，問題外化之命名等；在研究中，隱喻可協助對研究參與者故事做整體性反思，增進詮釋連貫性。在方法論層次，隱喻可協助呂格爾「三層摹擬論」的前構、形構、再構過程中之順利轉換。最後認識論及本體論層次，隱喻揭示了人所存有世界的本體性特徵，即宛若世界。此「世界」只能藉由隱喻或敘事文本來摹擬，本身就包涵「是」與「不是」的辯證性認識論。但文本摹擬之差異性或偏離性並不視為誤差，而是一種創造性，也是文本世界之生命力所在。This study addresses the key effects and meanings of metaphors in narrative studies and narrative psychology. Metaphors have importance in the development of hermeneutics, and Ricoeur studied it in the book La métaphore vive. The development of hermeneutics has two major turns. The first major turn is Wilhelm Dilthey's contributions, who made important contributions to a methodology of the humanities and other human sciences. The second major turn is that Martin Heidegger's contributions, shifted from Wilhelm Dilthey's theories. Martin Heidegger is counted among the main exponents of existentialism. Heidegger's groundbreaking work is in ontology (the philosophical study of being or existence) and metaphysics. And since then, hermeneutics has advocated detours to understand human beings that requires language or narrative text. The role of metaphors in the narrative is what this study aims to explore. The literature as well as practical counseling experiences have found different schools of counseling seem to believe that metaphors help the process of counseling. The purpose of this study is to explore how metaphors help.Also, the main approach of this study is to explore the links and important discourses between narratives and metaphors in greater depth through the review of critical literatures. The study explores how metaphors help step by step from how metaphors are applied, and from the methodology aspect, the epistemology aspect and the ontology aspect. When it comes to how metaphors are applied, metaphors stimulate transformation in reference frames, viewpoints of world, and the naming of the externalized problems, etc. In this study, metaphors stimulate the study participants to reflect on stories holistically and improve the consistency of interpretation. The role of metaphors comes from what Ricoeur called a rhetorical property. At the methodology level, metaphors have what Ricoeur called poetics, including mimesis and pictorial-semantic fusion. Therefore, metaphors stimulate the transformation process of pre-figuration, configuration, and re-figuration of Ricoeur's ＂threefold mimesis＂, which are the core frame of narrative, in the text. Also, the pictorial nature of metaphors assist in the construction and interpretation of the story. At the epistemological level, metaphors themselves contain a dialectical epistemology of ＂to be＂ and ＂not to be＂, and this dialectic helps to promote the hermeneutic circle among understanding, interpretation, and construction. It is an open circle and a creative mimesis. Finally, at the ontology level, metaphors reveal the ontological characteristics of the human beings' world - the ＂as if＂ world. This world can only be drawn up by metaphors or narrative texts. However, the difference (écart) of the texts is not regarded as an error but rather regarded as a type of creativity and liveliness of the text. Moreover, the secondary reference of metaphors and narratives, the hermeneutical detour nature of narratives, helps people move from a limited situation of unformed meaning towards a state of existence and authentic self. In other words, the ontology or existence of man reflected in metaphors or narratives is essentially the ontology of meaning construction. The so-called authentic self (Eigentlichkeit) or transcendent state is not the appearance of the real self or the given ultimate goal or answer but rather a possibility of development and a process of continuous meaning construction and becoming. In the history the earliest narrative works of human beings are cave paintings of primitive humans and related witchcraft rituals or dances. The initial imitations of these life experiences have brought about reflection and consciousness, which allows human beings to go into the world of meaning construction from the unconscious and organic world. This also allows for the birth of art and culture. Therefore, human beings are in this metaphorical and narrative-like world and can constantly construct or reconstruct meanings of life.

Propagating Afro-pessimism? The power of neo-Pentecostal prophetic objects on human agency and transcendence in Africa

This article is a public systematic theological analysis of the power of the anointed objects of African neo-Pentecostal prophets (NPPs) on human agency and transcendence in the African context of enduring poverty and human brokenness. It analysed the public role played by anointed objects from a systematic theological perspective. The article argued that many African Christians rely on anointed objects without critically considering the negative implications on their human agency (power to act) and transcendence (power to overcome) as Africans. It highlighted the irony of teaching Africans to rely on anointed objects to overcome their poverty, while other races, especially white people in Western countries, continue to build prosperous economies even after rejecting religion and Christianity. This led to the question: What does the African reliance on anointed objects of the NPPs say about the state of African human agency and transcendence? The central argument was that anointed objects are fraught with Afro-pessimism, the negative connotations about African human agency and transcendence. A secondary question that emerged was: What is a biblical view of humanity that can be used to revive African human agency and transcendence, and lead to a meaningful response to poverty? As a public systematic theological critique, the question was answered by evaluating if the NPPs’ use of anointed objects to overcome poverty resonates with what the Bible teaches about human potential in Genesis 1:26–28 and the extent to which it promotes Afro-optimism that enhances human agency and transcendence in Africa.Contribution: This article calls African NPPs and their adherents to think critically and broadly about their public role in the context of poverty in Africa. It uses biblical doctrines and images to challenge NPPs to respond to poverty in ways that promote Afro-optimism by enhancing the human agency and transcendency of African people instead of the Afro-pessimism promoted by the relying on anointed objects.

Immortality and Longevity through Yoga in the Tirumantiram

Abstract Tirumūlar yoga reveals the practices through which one may achieve longevity and immortality. Prolonging life aids the yogi to accomplish yoga’s final transcendent state of consciousness, samadhi, in which the yogi’s consciousness is absorbed into the god Śiva. Although a person’s lifespan is determined by the time of their conception, birth, and actions, life expectancy can be prolonged by certain yogic techniques. This is attested to in Tirumūlar’s seminal text Tirumantiram, in which he claims to have reached samadhi and to have lived for thousands of years. Tirumūlar details four yoga systems – Aṣṭāṅgayoga, Khecarīyoga, Candrayoga, and Paryaṅgayoga – that are meant to preserve life energy. These systems include practices designed to retain vital energies such as breath and semen retention, awaken and elevate the life force, and lead to immortality. The yoga’s final immortal state of samadhi resembles a deathlike state, which is said to be the ultimate blissful state of living.

Türkiye’de Siyasetin Dönüşümü: ‘Güçlü Devlet Geleneği’nden ‘Total Siyaset’e

This article aims to conceptually analyze the transformation of politics, as a state-society relationship, in Turkey from the 1990s until today. To do this conceptual analysis, firstly, a detection of the founding parameters which describe the dominant political structure of Republic of Turkey is done. For the detection of founding parameters, the settled conceptual models that have been developed previously to analyze the politics of Turkey are consulted. As the settled conceptual models, the models of Şerif Mardin’s “centerperiphery”, Metin Heper’s “transcendent state – society”, İdris Küçükömer’s “Proponents of westernization/ secularist - Proponents of easternization/Islamist” front and Emre Kongar’s “statist preeminent - traditionalist liberal” front are analyzed. Then, the changes in the structure of the post-1990 politics of Turkey is analyzed with reference to founder parameters which are detected from the settled conceptual models. The major argument of this article is that the dominant political structure of the Republic of Turkey, overall changing around political reforms after 2000, has transformed at the institutional level from the “strong state tradition - based” political structure to “total politics - based” political structure. In this context, this study explores how the strong state tradition transformed and the social groups turned into an actor in Turkish politics.

The Expanded Caesura-Fill and Transcendental States in Beethoven's "Hammerklavier" Sonata

Anticipating Beethoven's late style, his Piano Sonata Op. 106, "Hammerklavier," contains distinct passages that serve to suspend formal time (noted by numerous scholars, including Adorno, Dahlhaus, Greene, Kinderman, et al.) and disrupt the forward progress of thematic zones within a sonata form. In this essay, I tie this suspension of time to a specific formal space introduced by Hepokoski and Darcy (2006)—the "caesura-fill"—which serves as a venue for compositional exploration throughout Beethoven's sonata oeuvre. Because caesura-fill music occurs between two thematic zones (transition and secondary themes), it has the potential not only for expansion but also for establishing a state of transcendence. In part 1, I investigate the presence of expanded caesura-fill in the exposition of the "Hammerklavier", which enters a transcendental state and postpones the secondary theme zone; harmonic and textural effects in the music underscore this aesthetic. In part 2, I draw comparisons to early- and middle-period works, most significantly the Eroica Symphony, Op. 55, and the "Archduke" Piano Trio, Op. 97. Finally, in part 3, I illustrate how the exposition of the "Hammerklavier" provides a script for the development section to again enter a zone of transcendence, using sharp-side keys to postpone and ultimately undermine the recapitulation.

THUTOAH - The Holographic Universe Theory of Art History

This text is an edit of the audio transcript of interviews with scientists John Ellis, Alessandra Gnecchi and Wolfgang Lerche from my video, The Holographic Universe Theory of Art History (THUTOAH). THUTOAH investigates the holographic principle and the theory that our universe could be understood as a vast and complex hologram, and hypothesises that, beyond acknowledged art historical contexts and imperatives, artists may have also been unconsciously attempting to describe the holographic nature of the universe. Projecting over 25,000 chronological images from art history (from cave painting to global contemporary art, including outsider and psychedelic art), THUTOAH echoes conceptually the actions of CERN's particle accelerator, the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), accelerating at 25 images per second in a looped sequence. Alongside this colossal library of images is a soundtrack of interviews with, and watercolours by, the scientists at CERN - illustrations and articulations of the holographic principle. THUTOAH hypothesises a reality that has perhaps been intuited over the ages, a reality beyond the already documented intentional depictions of spiritual, mystical or transcendent realities or altered states of consciousness; the reality of the holographic nature of the universe.

Políticas sobre la tierra y la deuda. Variaciones sobre Gaia.

Los originarios, llamados “indígenas” por una generalidad blanca, imperial, colonial y republicana, miran la Tierra y extraen su fuerza de ella sin desvelar sus secretos. Habitar como originario supone tener como referencia primordial la relación con la Tierra en la que se nace y en la que se fabrica el nicho vital, no importa si su localización es en la selva, en la aridez de los desiertos, en las faldas andinas o en las comunidades de las periferias metropolitanas. Lo que sitúa a esos cuerpos es su condición de formar comunidad ligada a un lugar específico que será inmanente a su constitución existencial. Los originarios no se sienten ciudadanos como sujetos de derecho que forman parte de una población controlada por un Estado, sino cuerpos encarnados a la Tierra que solo existen bajo la forma del plural de la palabra “Pueblos”. Los pueblos y los cuerpos de los originarios son parte de la Tierra. La separación entre la comunidad y la Tierra supone la separación entre las personas de derecho y sus cuerpos, operación central ejecutada por la historia del Estado para crear poblaciones administradas. Esta es la calle de mano única que transforma al originario en “ciudadano pobre” o “pobre sin tierra”, lo que obliga a los cuerpos a vender su subsistencia para enriquecer a los nuevos dueños de la tierra. Separar a los originarios de su relación con el nicho vital, de su relación política y social que vive de la tierra, es una operación de los Estados trascendentes que se ligan hoy a las formas del capitalismo financiero, para transformar a los llamados “indios” en pobres, porque sin pobres no hay capitalismo.

‘No mind’: A Zen Buddhist perspective on embodied consciousness

Abstract This article explores the idea of a deeply embodied consciousness during movement, which has become one of the most intensely discussed topics in terms of the phenomenology and spirituality of dance and somatic practices. The strive towards an embodied state of consciousness has been historically present in the context of Zen Buddhist philosophy, wherein true embodiment is considered an enlightened state of being, wherein one’s consciousness transcends the barriers of mind versus body, self versus other and human versus non-human; it is thought that, in this state, we experience a visceral enlightenment towards our inherent connection to (or interrelation with) the spiritual and physical world around us, and that this state is a form of ‘purified’ – or even optimal – being. Phenomenological aspects underpinning this paradigm will be unpacked through representative cases of eastern movement practices whose founding philosophies align with Zen Buddhist thought. Among these movement practices will be Nihon-buyo (Japanese traditional dance), eastern martial arts and Butoh, which all utilize movement as a meditative process towards a state of selfworld transcendence. At the end of the article, the phenomenon of deeply embodied consciousness will be reframed and explained through the lens of neurophenomenology, with the aim of bringing forth the validity and relevance of this phenomenon in the newly emerging scientific research of consciousness and attention.

“I call him father of us all”: vicarious transcendence at the B. B. King Museum and Delta Interpretive Center

ABSTRACTThis essay advocates closer attention to the relationship between transcendent rhetoric and public memory sites. Through an analysis of the B. B. King Museum and Delta Interpretive Center in Indianola, Mississippi, the essay introduces the concept of vicarious transcendence, a powerful, yet underexplored mode of public discourse that highlights how visitors arrive at a transcendent state via the transcendent journey of another agent. As the state’s premier destination for blues tourists, the King Museum also becomes a vehicle for Mississippi’s vicarious transcendence of its own legacy of slavery and systemic racism.

A Systematic Review of Transcendent States Across Meditation and Contemplative Traditions

Across cultures and throughout history, transcendent states achieved through meditative practices have been reported. The practices to attain transcendent states vary from transcendental meditation to yoga to contemplative prayer, to other various forms of sitting meditation. While these transcendent states are ascribed many different terms, those who experience them describe a similar unitive, ineffable state of consciousness. Despite the common description, few studies have systematically examined transcendent states during meditation. The objectives of this systematic review were to: 1) characterize studies evaluating transcendent states associated with meditation in any tradition; 2) qualitatively describe physiological and phenomenological outcomes collected during transcendent states and; 3) evaluate the quality of these studies using the Quality Assessment Tool. Medline, PsycINFO, CINAHL, AltHealthWatch, AMED, and the Institute of Noetic Science Meditation Library were searched for relevant papers in any language. Included studies required adult participants and the collection of outcomes before, during, or after a reported transcendent state associated with meditation. Twenty-five studies with a total of 672 combined participants were included in the final review. Participants were mostly male (61%; average age 39 ± 11 years) with 12.7 ± 6.6 (median 12.6; range 2-40) average years of meditation practice. A variety of meditation traditions were represented: (Buddhist; Christian; Mixed (practitioners from multiple traditions); Vedic: Transcendental Meditation and Yoga). The mean quality score was 67 ± 13 (100 highest score possible). Subjective phenomenology and the objective outcomes of electroencephalography (EEG), electrocardiography, electromyography, electrooculogram, event-related potentials, functional magnetic resonance imaging, magnetoencephalography, respiration, and skin conductance and response were measured. Transcendent states were most consistently associated with slowed breathing, respiratory suspension, reduced muscle activity and EEG alpha blocking with external stimuli, and increased EEG alpha power, EEG coherence, and functional neural connectivity. The transcendent state is described as being in a state of relaxed wakefulness in a phenomenologically different space-time. Heterogeneity between studies precluded any formal meta-analysis and thus, conclusions about outcomes are qualitative and preliminary. Future research is warranted into transcendent states during meditation using more refined phenomenological tools and consistent methods and outcome evaluation.

Surrender, Transformation, and Transcendence

Integrating psychoanalysis, mysticism, and quantum physics, this paper explores different means of transformation through superconscious states that transcend space and time. Venturing into technique, the paper discusses ways these transcendent states of consciousness can be used clinically to come to know and experience the other more directly from the inside. A paradigm shift beyond intersubjectivity is implicated.

The Evolution of Transcendence

The transcendent experience, often described as an ego-dissolving encounter with something greater than one’s self, is cross-cultural and pan-historical. I present a model describing the evolution and function of various evolved modes of transcendence, such as group-directed transcendence, theory of mind (ToM)-evoking transcendence, aesthetic transcendence, and epistemic transcendence. I then discuss the vulnerability of these modes of transcendence to costly exploitation by selfish individuals who activate the transcendent state in others for their own reproductive benefit. In the ensuing section, I discuss the relationship between transcendence and human development across the lifespan, and conclude with some thoughts on the epistemic and ethical utility of transcendence.

DEPICTION OF YOGIC PRACTICES IN INDIAN ART

Art has spectrum of expression that extends. Many sculptures and paintings convey the specific meaning and contents of Yoga. It occupied the distinct, one and only and unparalleled recognition for mental, physical moral and spiritual enhancement. The acceptance of yoga for ultimate achievement in life was inherent tradition "Yoga was one of the Fundamental doctrines devoted to the means to attain perfect health and mental poise"&#x0D; In the language of Indian art, the depiction of Yog Mudras, Asanas and Postures are employed as idioms to deepen the content and to enrich the meaning It is also the language of gesture which is unique, it works differently. The monastic abstraction, the eternal values the calmness of mind and the transcendent states of experience are perfectly reflected in Indian art work.&#x0D; In the cultural history of India, Yoga occupied the distinct, one and only and unparalleled recognition for mental, physical moral and spiritual enhancement. The acceptance of yoga for ultimate achievement in life was inherent tradition "Yoga was one of the Fundamental doctrine devoted to the means to attain perfect health and mental poise.

The Complete Story of the Grail: Chrétien de Troyes’ Perceval and Its Continuations by Chrétien de Troyes

Reviewed by: The Complete Story of the Grail: Chrétien de Troyes’ Perceval and Its Continuations by Chrétien de Troyes Susan Brooks Chrétien de Troyes, The Complete Story of the Grail: Chrétien de Troyes’ Perceval and Its Continuations, trans. Nigel Bryant (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer 2015) 580 pp. The Quest for the Holy Grail is an iconic story in Western culture. The first writer to set it down in literature was Chrétien de Troyes, the twelfth-century French trouvère poet associated with the courts of Marie of Champagne and Philip of Flanders. It is believed to be the latter patron who commissioned the creation of Chrétien’s last great work, Perceval, the tale of the Grail knight. Author of several Arthurian works including Yvain, The Knight of the Lion and Cligés, Chrétien is considered the preeminent poet of chivalric culture. His Grail manuscript breaks off, and it is commonly thought that its unfinished state can be attributed to his death. What remains is of such rare quality that it became a medieval obsession, with continuations by no fewer than four subsequent poets and prequels by two additional writers. BBC Producer and former [End Page 351] head of drama at Marlborough College Nigel Bryant has translated and gathered all of the versions into one volume, The Complete Story of the Grail, published by Boydell & Brewer imprint D. S. Brewer and edited by noted Arthurian authority Norris J. Lacy, professor emeritus of Pennsylvania State University. Bryant himself is the translator of numerous books including Perlesvaus and Perceforest and the author of more including a forthcoming biography of William Marshal. This fine edition of the Grail story surrenders many treasures to a close read. Bryant capsulizes the seminal Chrétien version and the continuations in the introductory section, providing a helpful guide through the nearly six hundred pages that follow. The book begins with a presentation of the facts. Perceval was likely written in the 1180s not long before Philip of Flanders died in the Third Crusade. The continuations appear over the following years, with the last possibly written as late as the 1230s. Perceval survives in fifteen manuscripts, some of which contain only the original and others which also incorporate one or more of the continuations in various redactions. Bryant addresses some scholarly appraisal of the continuations as being of lesser consequence than other medieval works by utilizing the example of modern entertainment franchises as a comparison. One of the objections to the continuations has been their divergence from Chrétien’s original and their lack of continuity. Bryant comments that modern viewers do not necessarily expect perfect continuity in film serials, nor did the medieval audience demand it in their romances. His roots as a dramatist are on display as he stresses that the works were clearly intended to be read aloud. Created in an era of limited literacy, he calls them “scripts for performance” and notes their merits as such. Bearing that in mind, it’s easy to see that Chrétien at least, a master storyteller, used words to paint a visual picture of astounding beauty for his audience. He employed color as the primary means to invoke the imagination: the green forest, the Red Knight, and the blood drops on the white snow that transport Perceval into a transcendent state recalling the feminine fairness of his love Blanchefleur. Other tools he deftly wielded to activate the capacity of visualization are symbols that even today speak to the unconscious: the Grail, the lance, the quiet of the glade and the panoply of the tournament. Perceval himself is an archetype, the Holy Fool who personifies innocence of the profane. He is also a genius of chivalry, descended from a line of notable knights, and such a quick study once introduced to the knightly concept that he seems like a superhero. It’s almost as if something encoded in his DNA is activated by the energies of the other men, and he bursts into bloom by subtle instinct. His interactions with others reveal both his initial raw edges and his ability to learn. The laughing girl and the fool at court come to...