Trans Inhibition Research Articles

Mechanistic Static Model based Prediction of Transporter Substrate Drug-Drug Interactions Utilizing Atorvastatin and Rifampicin.

An in vitro relative activity factor (RAF) technique combined with mechanistic static modeling was examined to predict drug-drug interaction (DDI) magnitude and analyze contributions of different clearance pathways in complex DDIs involving transporter substrates. Atorvastatin and rifampicin were used as a model substrate and inhibitor pair. In vitro studies were conducted with transfected HEK293 cells, hepatocytes and human liver microsomes. Prediction success was defined as predictions being within twofold of observations. The RAF method successfully translated atorvastatin uptake from transfected cells to hepatocytes, demonstrating its ability to quantify transporter contributions to uptake. Successful translation of atorvastatin's in vivo intrinsic hepatic clearance (CLint,h,in vivo) from hepatocytes to liver was only achieved through consideration of albumin facilitated uptake or through application of empirical scaling factors to transporter-mediated clearances. Transporter protein expression differences between hepatocytes and liver did not affect CLint,h,in vivo predictions. By integrating cis and trans inhibition of OATP1B1/OATP1B3, atorvastatin-rifampicin (single dose) DDI magnitude could be accurately predicted (predictions within 0.77-1.0 fold of observations). Simulations indicated that concurrent inhibition of both OATP1B1 and OATP1B3 caused approximately 80% of atorvastatin exposure increases (AUCR) in the presence of rifampicin. Inhibiting biliary elimination, hepatic metabolism, OATP2B1, NTCP, and basolateral efflux are predicted to have minimal to no effect on AUCR. This study demonstrates the effective application of a RAF-based translation method combined with mechanistic static modeling for transporter substrate DDI predictions and subsequent mechanistic interpretation.

Quinone Methide-Based Organophosphate Hydrolases Inhibitors: Trans Proximity Labelers versus Cis Labeling Activity-Based Probes.

Quinone methide (QM) chemistry is widely applied including in enzyme inhibitors. Typically, enzyme-mediated bond breaking releases a phenol product that rearranges into an electrophilic QM that in turn covalently modifies protein side chains. However, the factors that govern the reactivity of QM-based inhibitors and their mode of inhibition have not been systematically explored. Foremost, enzyme inactivation might occur in cis, whereby a QM molecule inactivates the very same enzyme molecule that released it, or by trans if the released QMs diffuse away and inactivate other enzyme molecules. We examined QM-based inhibitors for enzymes exhibiting phosphoester hydrolase activity. We tested different phenolic substituents and benzylic leaving groups, thereby modulating the rates of enzymatic hydrolysis, phenolate-to-QM rearrangement, and the electrophilicity of the resulting QM. By developing assays that distinguish between cis and trans inhibition, we have identified certain combinations of leaving groups and phenyl substituents that lead to inhibition in the cis mode, while other combinations gave trans inhibition. Our results suggest that cis-acting QM-based substrates could be used as activity-based probes to identify various phospho- and phosphono-ester hydrolases, and potentially other hydrolases.

TACE plus sorafenib for the treatment of advanced hepatocellular carcinoma.

e15178 Background: Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is considered to be a hypervascular tumor. Therefore, Trans Arterial Chemo Embolization (TACE) and inhibition of angiogenesis appear rational treatment strategies for those patients who have localised disease not amenable to surgical resection. TACE causes increased hypoxia leading to an up regulation in hypoxia inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α), which in turn up regulates vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), platelet-derived growth factor receptor, and increases tumor angiogenesis. The present study investigated for the combination of TACE and Sorafenib, a multikinase inhibitor with anti-angiogenic activities approved for the treatment of HCC. Methods: Patients included histologically confirmed, unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma beyond Milan criteria, no extrahepatic spread, Child Pugh score ≤8, ECOG PS 0-2, platelets >100K/µl, and bilirubin <2.5 mg/dl. We present our experience with 42 patients of HCC treated with Trans Arterial Chemo Embolisation (TACE) with Cisplatin, Lipodol and PVA of which 14 pts received TACE along with Sorafenib. Results: Between May 2007 to Jan 2013, 42 patients were enrolled. Patients received a mean of 1.45 TACE interventions (range 1-4). The longest survival was 53 months after 1stTACE and median overall survival was 443 days. Grade 3 and 4 toxicities were noted in 18% and 7% of patients. Conclusions: TACE is a very good method for palliation of unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) with improved survival and quality of life.The combination of TACE with sorafenib is tolerable for most patients and associated with a promising rate of radiographic response and OS.

Estimation of Pore Geometry of RyR1 using Lanthanide Ruler

It was shown previously that the Ca analogue Gd inhibits RyR1 gating symmetrically with a Kd about 5.5 microM and Hill coefficient (nH) of 4 both on cis and trans side using single channel electrophysiology. We further tested the RyR1-lanthanide interaction using two lanthanides - having an ionic radii between Ca2+ and Gd3+ - by bilayer measurements and ryanodine binding experiments. Cis inhibition of RyR1 by Eu was characterized by a binding constant of Kd=167±5 nM and an nH of 2±0.1 while trans inhibition exhibits Kd=4.8±0.2 microM and nN of 5.2±1.2. The inhibition constants for Sm on the cis side are Kd=64.3±2.5 nM and nH=2.2±0.2 while on the trans side Kd=6.15±0.13 microM and nH=4.68±0.45. Inhibition by Eu and Sm are potential and polarity dependent in contrast to Gd due to the differences in ionic radii of these lanthanides. Increasing the ionic radius from 0.938 (Gd) to 0.964 (Sm) increased the binding affinity from 5.6 microM to 64.3 nM revealing that the size of Ca binding pocket is only slightly higher than the ionic radius of Sm. Ryanodine (Ry) binding experiments revealed that lanthanides bind - at least partially - to the regulatory Ca binding site because the dose response curve of 3H Ry binding starts with an increase of Ry binding, which amounts to about 40% for Eu and 70% for Sm of basic Ry binding. A model has been proposed for one possible spatial arrangement of lanthanide and calcium binding sites of the RyR1 pore based on the ionic radii of Ca and the tested lanthanides. Supported by OTKA 81923.

Assessing the effect of the CLPG mutation on the microRNA catalog of skeletal muscle using high-throughput sequencing

The callipyge phenotype is a monogenic muscular hypertrophy that is only expressed in heterozygous sheep receiving the CLPG mutation from their sire. The wild-type phenotype of CLPG/CLPG animals is thought to result from translational inhibition of paternally expressed DLK1 transcripts by maternally expressed miRNAs. To identify the miRNA responsible for this trans effect, we used high-throughput sequencing to exhaustively catalog miRNAs expressed in skeletal muscle of sheep of the four CLPG genotypes. We have identified 747 miRNA species of which 110 map to the DLK1-GTL2 or callipyge domain. We demonstrate that the latter are imprinted and preferentially expressed from the maternal allele. We show that the CLPG mutation affects their level of expression in cis (∼3.2-fold increase) as well as in trans (∼1.8-fold increase). In CLPG/CLPG animals, miRNAs from the DLK1-GTL2 domain account for ∼20% of miRNAs in skeletal muscle. We show that the CLPG genotype affects the levels of A-to-I editing of at least five pri-miRNAs of the DLK1-GTL2 domain, but that levels of editing of mature miRNAs are always minor. We present suggestive evidence that the miRNAs from the domain target the ORF of DLK1, thereby causing the trans inhibition underlying polar overdominance. We highlight the limitations of high-throughput sequencing for digital gene expression profiling as a result of biased and inconsistent amplification of specific miRNAs.

The ABCs of trans(porter) inhibition

Transporter proteins mediate the import of nutrients and the export of toxins across biological membranes. A new crystal structure of a bacterial ABC transporter reveals an unexpected mechanism for transporter inhibition by its transported substrate.

The Werner Syndrome Helicase Is a Cofactor for HIV-1 Long Terminal Repeat Transactivation and Retroviral Replication

The Werner syndrome helicase (WRN) participates in DNA replication, double strand break repair, telomere maintenance, and p53 activation. Mutations of wrn cause Werner syndrome (WS), an autosomal recessive premature aging disorder associated with cancer predisposition, atherosclerosis, and other aging related symptoms. Here, we report that WRN is a novel cofactor for HIV-1 replication. Immortalized human WRN(-/-) WS fibroblasts, lacking a functional wrn gene, are impaired for basal and Tat-activated HIV-1 transcription. Overexpression of wild-type WRN transactivates the HIV-1 long terminal repeat (LTR) in the absence of Tat, and WRN cooperates with Tat to promote high-level LTR transactivation. Ectopic WRN induces HIV-1 p24(Gag) production and retroviral replication in HIV-1-infected H9(HIV-1IIIB) lymphocytes. A dominant-negative helicase-minus mutant, WRN(K577M), inhibits LTR transactivation and HIV-1 replication. Inhibition of endogenous WRN, through co-expression of WRN(K577M), diminishes recruitment of p300/CREB-binding protein-associated factor (PCAF) and positive transcription elongation factor b (P-TEFb) to Tat/transactivation response-RNA complexes, and immortalized WRN(-/-) WS fibroblasts exhibit comparable defects in recruitment of PCAF and P-TEFb to the HIV-1 LTR. Our results demonstrate that WRN is a novel cellular cofactor for HIV-1 replication and suggest that the WRN helicase participates in the recruitment of PCAF/P-TEFb-containing transcription complexes. WRN may be a plausible target for antiretroviral therapy.

Ectopic Expression of DLK1 Protein in Skeletal Muscle of Padumnal Heterozygotes Causes the Callipyge Phenotype

The callipyge (CLPG) phenotype is an inherited skeletal muscle hypertrophy described in sheep. It is characterized by an unusual mode of inheritance ("polar overdominance") in which only heterozygous individuals having received the CLPG mutation from their father (+(MAT)/CLPG(PAT)) express the phenotype . +(MAT)/CLPG(PAT) individuals are born normal and develop the muscular hypertrophy at approximately 1 month of age. The CLPG mutation was identified as an A to G transition in a highly conserved dodecamer motif located between the imprinted DLK1 and GTL2 genes . This motif is thought to be part of a long-range control element (LRCE) because the CLPG mutation was shown, in postnatal skeletal muscle, to enhance the transcript levels of the DLK1, PEG11, GTL2, and MEG8 genes in cis without altering their imprinting status . As a result, the +(MAT)/CLPG(PAT) individuals have a unique expression profile thought to underlie the callipyge phenotype: an overexpression of the paternally expressed protein encoding DLK1 (Figure 1A) and PEG11 transcripts in the absence of an overexpression of the maternally expressed noncoding GTL2 and MEG8 transcripts . However, the way in which this distinct expression profile causes the callipyge muscular hypertrophy has remained unclear. Herein, we demonstrate that the callipyge phenotype is perfectly correlated with ectopic expression of DLK1 protein in hypertrophied muscle of +(MAT)/CLPG(PAT) sheep. We demonstrate the causality of this association by inducing a generalized muscular hypertrophy in transgenic mice that express DLK1 in skeletal muscle. The absence of DLK1 protein in skeletal muscle of CLPG/CLPG animals, despite the presence of DLK1 mRNA, supports a trans inhibition mediated by noncoding RNAs expressed from the maternal allele.

Structural requirements for the inhibitory action of the CD9 large extracellular domain in sperm/oocyte binding and fusion

CD9 has been shown to be essential for sperm/oocyte fusion in mice, the only non-redundant role found for a member of the tetraspanin family. CD9 can act in cis, reconstituting sperm/oocyte fusion when ectopically expressed in oocytes from CD9 null mice, or in trans, inhibiting sperm fusion when the large extracellular domain (LED) is added to CD9-positive oocytes as a soluble protein. In contrast to cis inhibition, the structural requirements of the trans inhibition by soluble CD9 LED are unknown. Here we show that human CD9 LED is as potent an inhibitor as mouse CD9 LED in mouse sperm/oocyte fusion assays and that CD9 LED can also inhibit sperm/oocyte binding. The two disulphide bridges that define membership of the tetraspanin family are critical for structure and function of human CD9 LED and mutation of a pentapeptide sequence in the hypervariable region further defines the critical region for trans inhibition.

The cellular response to DNA damage induced by the enediynes C-1027 and neocarzinostatin includes hyperphosphorylation and increased nuclear retention of replication protein a (RPA) and trans inhibition of DNA replication.

This study examined the cellular response to DNA damage induced by antitumor enediynes C-1027 and neocarzinostatin. Treatment of cells with either agent induced hyperphosphorylation of RPA32, the middle subunit of replication protein A, and increased nuclear retention of RPA. Nearly all of the RPA32 that was not readily extractable from the nucleus was hyperphosphorylated, compared to < or =50% of the soluble RPA. Enediyne concentrations that induced RPA32 hyperphosphorylation also decreased cell-free SV40 DNA replication competence in extracts of treated cells. This decrease did not result from damage to the DNA template, indicating trans-acting inhibition of DNA replication. Enediyne-induced RPA hyperphosphorylation was unaffected by the replication elongation inhibitor aphidicolin, suggesting that the cellular response to enediyne DNA damage was not dependent on elongation of replicating DNA. Neither recovery of replication competence nor reversal of RPA effects occurred when treated cells were further incubated in the absence of drug. C-1027 and neocarzinostatin doses that caused similar levels of DNA damage resulted in equivalent increases in RPA32 hyperphosphorylation and RPA nuclear retention and decreases in replication activity, suggesting a common response to enediyne-induced DNA damage. By contrast, DNA damage induced by C-1027 was at least 5-fold more cytotoxic than that induced by neocarzinostatin.

C-1027-induced alterations in Epstein-Barr viral DNA replication in latently infected cultured human Raji cells: relationship to DNA damage.

This study is the first detailing drug-induced changes in EBV DNA replication intermediates (RIs). Both EBV replication inhibition and damage induction were studied in latently infected human Raji cells treated with the enediyne DNA strand-scission agent C-1027. Analysis of RIs on two-dimensional agarose gels revealed a rapid loss in the EBV bubble arc. When elongation of nascent chains was blocked by aphidicolin, this loss was inhibited, suggesting that C-1027-induced disappearance of RIs was related to maturation of preformed replication molecules in the absence of initiation of new RIs. C-1027 damage to EBV DNA was limited at concentrations where loss of the bubble arc was nearly complete, and none was detected within the replicating origin (ori P)-containing fragment, indicating that replication inhibition occurred in trans. By contrast, the non-nuclear mitochondrial genome was insensitive to replication inhibition but highly sensitive to damage induced by C-1027. C-1027-induced trans inhibition of nuclear but not mitochondrial DNA replication is consistent with a cell cycle checkpoint response to a DNA-damaging agent. EBV replication and Raji cell growth were inhibited at equivalent C-1027 doses.

Trans receptor inhibition of human glioblastoma cells by erbB family ectodomains

Our aim has been to understand the features of erbB receptor homo- and heterodimer assembly to develop approaches to disrupt receptor activation. We have developed a general approach to cause erbB receptor-specific trans inhibition of human neoplasia. The clonal progression of human astrocytomas to a more malignant phenotype often involves the amplification and overexpression of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFr) gene. We have selectively targeted the EGFr in human glioblastoma cells with kinase-deficient mutants of the erbB family derived from the ectodomain of the Neu oncogene that are able to form heterodimers with EGFr and inhibit EGFr-dependent phenotypes. In EGFr-positive U87MG human glioblastoma cells, expression of the Neu ectodomain inhibits EGF-, but not platelet-derived growth factor-, induced DNA synthesis; inhibits cell proliferation in the presence of EGF, but not platelet-derived growth factor; inhibits the ability of U87MG to form colonies in soft agar; and inhibits transforming efficiency in athymic mice. These studies establish that EGFr-mediated signal transduction is important in the maintenance of malignant glioma, and that trans receptor inhibition is a novel way to abrogate abnormal growth of these tumors. Neu ectodomains will be useful in determining the manner in which the EGFr contributes to glial tumorigenesis and in the design of pharmaceuticals that disable erbB family oncoproteins. In addition, these studies provide a rationale for the application of the Neu ectodomain in gene therapy approaches to human malignant glioma and, potentially, to other systemic epithelial malignancies expressing erbB family receptors.

Kinetic analysis by in vivo 31P nuclear magnetic resonance of internal Pi during the uptake of sn-glycerol-3-phosphate by the pho regulon-dependent Ugp system and the glp regulon-dependent GlpT system

When sn-glycerol-3-phosphate (G3P) is taken up exclusively by the pho regulon-dependent Ugp transport system, it can be used as the sole source of Pi but not as the sole source of carbon. We had previously suggested that the inability of G3P to be used as a carbon source under these conditions is due to trans inhibition of G3P uptake by internal Pi derived from the degradation of G3P (P. Brzoska, M. Rimmele, K. Brzostek, and W. Boos, J. Bacteriol. 176:15-20, 1994). Here we report 31P nuclear magnetic resonance measurements of intact cells after exposure to G3P as well as to Pi, using different mutants defective in pst (high-affinity Pi transport), ugp (pho-dependent G3P transport), glpT (glp-dependent G3P transport), and glpD (aerobic G3P dehydrogenase). When G3P was transported by the Ugp system and when metabolism of G3P was allowed (glpD+), Pi accumulated to about 13 to 19 mM. When G3P was taken up by the GlpT system, the preexisting internal Pi pool (whether low or high) did not change. Both systems were inversely controlled by internal Pi. Whereas the Ugp system was inhibited, the GlpT system was stimulated by elevated internal Pi.

The pho regulon-dependent Ugp uptake system for glycerol-3-phosphate in Escherichia coli is trans inhibited by Pi.

sn-Glycerol-3-phosphate (G3P) or glyceryl phosphoryl phosphodiesters, the substrates of the phoB-dependent Ugp transport system, when transported exclusively through this system, can serve as a sole source of phosphate but not as a sole source of carbon (H. Schweizer, M. Argast, and W. Boos, J. Bacteriol. 150:1154-1163, 1982). In order to explain this phenomenon, we tested two possibilities: repression of the pho regulon by Ugp-mediated transport and feedback inhibition by internal G3P or its degradation product Pi. Using an ugp-lacZ fusion, we found that the expression of ugp does not decline upon exposure to G3P, in contrast to the repressing effect of transport of Pi via the Pst system. This indicated that the Ugp system becomes inhibited after the uptake and metabolism of G3P. Using 32P-labeled G3P, we observed that little Pi is released by cells taking up G3P via the Ugp system but large amounts of Pi are released when the cells are taking up G3P via the GlpT system. Using a glpD mutant that could not oxidize G3P but which could still phosphorylate exogenous glycerol to G3P after GlpF-mediated transport of glycerol, we could not find trans inhibition of Ugp-mediated uptake of exogenous 14C-G3P. However, when allowing uptake of Pi via Pst, we observed a time-dependent inhibition of 14C-G3P taken up by the Ugp transport system. Inhibition was half maximal after 2 min and could be elicited by Pi concentrations below 0.5 mM. Cells had to be starved for Pi in order to observe this inhibition. We conclude that the activity of the Ugp transport system is controlled by the level of internal phosphate.

Terminal regions of the NS-1 protein of the parvovirus minute virus of mice are involved in cytotoxicity and promoter trans inhibition.

The nonstructural (NS) transcription unit of minute virus of mice (MVMp) encodes proteins that are involved in viral DNA replication and in the regulation of homologous and heterologous promoters. Moreover, it has been shown that NS-protein accumulation is toxic for transformed cells. With the aim of identifying the NS-protein function(s) responsible for cytotoxicity, point mutations and deletions were introduced in the NS-protein-coding sequence of MVMp. This strategy indicated that in transformed human NBE cells, the NS-1 protein is indispensable for MVMp DNA replication, trans activation of the late parvoviral promoter P38, trans inhibition of the long terminal repeat promoter of the Rous sarcoma virus, and cytotoxicity. Moreover, some mutations led to the dissociation of the replicative and regulatory functions of the NS-1 protein and showed that cytotoxicity correlated with the latter, more particularly with the capacity to trans inhibit the heterologous promoter. The NS-1 sequences required for cytotoxicity were found to be restricted to the amino- and carboxy-terminal portions of the protein. Although the cytotoxicities of NS-1 extremities were weak when the extremities were tested separately, the cytotoxicities were comparable to that of the full protein when the extremities were fused. Interestingly, an overall negative charge can be predicted from the NS-1 sequence over about 100 amino acids at both ends. The conservation of this charge distribution among the NS proteins of different parvoviruses suggests that NS-1 may bear some similarities to acidic transcriptional activators.

Trans-dominant inhibition of human hepatitis delta virus genome replication

Infection with hepatitis delta virus (HDV) is an important cause of acute and chronic liver disease and can be rapidly fatal. Sequencing of the HDV RNA genome has revealed variability at the C-terminal end of the delta antigen reading frame. One genome type (termed the S genome) synthesizes a 24-kDa protein thought to be required for genome replication. Another genome type (termed the L genome) extends the reading frame by 19 amino acids as a result of a single base change. Replication of the S and L genomes was studied in cultured fibroblasts. While the S genome efficiently initiated genome replication, the L genome did not. Moreover, in a codelivery experiment, L genome RNA inhibited replication of the S genome. Potent trans inhibition was also observed following cotransfection of the S genome and a plasmid encoding the larger delta antigen. Mutational analysis indicated that the inhibitory activity was not a simple function of the large delta antigen reading frame's extra length. Implications for the viral life cycle, clinical infection, and potential treatment are discussed.

Kinetics of Cl-dependent K fluxes in hyposmotically swollen low K sheep erythrocytes.

A detailed kinetic study of K:Cl cotransport in hyposmotically swollen low K sheep red blood cells was carried out to characterize the nature of the outwardly poised carrier. The kinetic parameters were determined from the rate of K efflux and influx under zero-K-trans conditions in red cells with cellular K altered by the nystatin method and with different extracellular K or Rb concentrations. Although apparent affinities for efflux and influx were quite similar, the maximal velocity for K efflux was approximately two times greater than for influx. Furthermore, at thermodynamic equilibrium (i.e., when the ion product of K and Cl within the cell was equal to that outside) a temperature-dependent net K efflux was observed, approaching zero only when the external product reached approximately two times the internal product. The binding order of the ions to the transporter was asymmetric, being ordered outside (Cl binding first, followed by K) and random inside. K efflux but not influx was trans-inhibited by KCl. Trans inhibition of K efflux was used to verify the order of binding outside: trans inhibition by external Cl occurred in the absence of external K, but not vice versa. Thus K:Cl cotransport is kinetically asymmetric in hyposmotically swollen low K sheep red cells.

The electrogenic proton/hexose carrier in the plasmalemma of Chenopodium rubrum suspension cells: effects of Δc, ΔpH and Δψ on hexose exchange diffusion

The hexose carrier in the plasmalemma of a higher plant suspension cell ( Chenopodium rubrum L.) catalyzes not only electrogenic proton/hexose symport, but also electroneutral exchange diffusion of hexoses. The transport process is studied mainly through short-term efflux disturbance of labelled 3-O- methyl- d-glucose (3-OMG). This novel method singles out the transport system in situ and reliably detects small (>5%) changes of unidirectional hexose fluxes. The three driving forces for the electrogenic net uptake of hexose are the gradients of substrate (hexose), cosubstrate (H +) and the electric potential difference across the plasmalemma. Increasing substrate concentrations (outside or inside) led to increased unidirectional fluxes into the compartment where the substrate concentration was increased (e.g., trans stimulation of 3-OMG efflux by external hexose); however, an increase of the external H + concentration at non-saturating external hexose concentrations led to a trans inhibition of 3-OMG efflux. Depolarization of the transmembrane electric potential difference without influencing the surface potential led to only a small increase in hexose efflux at low hexose concentrations and had no measurable effect at saturating hexose concentrations. However, depolarization mainly due to a decrease of the surface and Donnan potentials mimicked the effect of alkalinization. These findings agree with a model based on a negatively charged carrier showing random-order binding of substrate and cosubstrate on the outside of the plasmalemma. It is not necessary to assume a recycling translocation step of the empty substrate-binding site. The low-voltage sensitivity of the hexose efflux observed is discussed with regard to possible electric potential profiles at the site of transport.

Modes of operation and variable stoichiometry of the furosemide- sensitive Na and K fluxes in human red cells.

We report in this paper different modes of Na and K transport in human red cells, which can be inhibited by furosemide in the presence of ouabain. Experimental evidence is provided for inward and outward coupled transport of Na and K, Ki/Ko and Nai/Nao exchange, and uncoupled Na or K efflux. The outward cotransport of Na and K was defined as the furosemide-sensitive (FS) component of Na and K effluxes into choline medium and as the Cl-dependent or cis-stimulated component of the ouabain-resistant (OR) Na and K effluxes. Inward cotransport of Na and K was defined by the stimulation by external Na (Nao) of the K influx and the stimulation by external K (Ko) of the Na influx in the presence of ouabain. Both effects were FS and Cl dependent. Experimental evidence for an FS Ki/Ko exchange pathway of the Na/K cotransport was provided by (a) the stimulation by external K of FS K influx and efflux, and (b) the stimulation by internal Na or K of FS K influx in the absence of external Na. Evidence for an FS Nai/Nao exchange pathway was provided by the stimulation of FS Na influx by internal Na from a K-free medium (130 mM NaCl). This pathway was four to six times smaller than the Ki/Ko exchange. In cells containing only Na or K, incubated in media containing only Na or K, respectively, there was FS efflux of the cation without simultaneous inward transport (FS uncoupled Na and K efflux). The stoichiometric ratio of FS outward cotransport of Na and K into choline medium varied with the ratio of Nai-to-Ki concentrations, and when Nai/Ki was close to 1, the ratio of FS outward Na to K flux was also 1. In choline media, FS Na efflux was inhibited by external K (noncompetitively), whereas FS k efflux was stimulated. The stimulation of FS K efflux was due to the stimulation by Ko of the Ki/Ko exchange pathway. Thus, the stoichiometry of FS Na and K effluxes also varied in the presence of external K. A minimal model for a reaction scheme of FS Na and K transport accounts for cis stimulation, trans inhibition, and trans stimulation, and for variable stoichiometry of the FS cation fluxes.

Mixed type inhibition of the renal Na+/H+ antiporter by Li+ and amiloride. Evidence for a modifier site.

We studied the interactions of Na+, Li+, and amiloride on the Na+/H+ antiporter in brush-border membrane vesicles from rabbit renal cortex. Cation-mediated collapse of an outwardly directed proton gradient (pHin = 6.0; pHout = 7.5) was monitored with the fluorescent amine, acridine orange. Proton efflux resulting from external addition of Na+ or Li+ exhibited simple saturation kinetics with Hill coefficients of 1.0. However, kinetic parameters for Na+ and Li+ differed (Km for Li+ = 1.2 +/- 0.1 mM; Km for Na+ = 14.3 +/- 0.8 mM; Vmax for Li+ = 2.40 +/- 0.07 fluorescence units/s/mg of protein; Vmax for Na+ = 7.10 +/- 0.24 fluorescence units/s/mg of protein). Inhibition of Na+/H+ exchange by Li+ and amiloride was also studied. Li+ inhibited the Na+/H+ antiporter by two mechanisms. Na+ and Li+ competed with each other at the cation transport site. However, when [Na+] was markedly higher than [Li+], [( Na+] = 90 mM; [Li+] less than 1 mM), we observed noncompetitive inhibition (Vmax for Na+/H+ exchange reduced by 25%). The apparent Ki for this noncompetitive inhibition was congruent to 50 microM. In addition, 2-30 mM intravesicular Li+, but not Na+, resulted in trans inhibition of Na+/H+ exchange. Amiloride was a mixed inhibitor of Na+/H+ exchange (Ki = 30 microM, Ki' = 90 microM) but was only a simple competitive inhibitor of Li+/H+ exchange (Ki = 10 microM). At [Li] = 1 mM and [amiloride] less than 100 microM, inhibition of Na+/H+ exchange by a combination of the two inhibitors was always less than additive. These results suggest the presence of a cation-binding site (separate from the cation-transport site) which could be a modifier site of the Na+/H+ antiporter.