Trailer Loads Research Articles

How to minimise the incidence of transport-related problem behaviours in horses: a review.

ABSTRACTThis review aims to provide practical outcomes on how to minimise the incidence of transport-related problem behaviours (TRPBs) in horses. TRPBs are unwanted behaviours occurring during different phases of transport, most commonly, a reluctance to load and scrambling during travelling. TRPBs can result in injuries to horses and horse handlers, horse trailer accidents, disruption of time schedules, inability to attend competitions, and poor performance following travel. Therefore, TRPBs are recognised as both a horse-related risk to humans and a human-related risk to horses. From the literature, it is apparent that TRPBs are common throughout the entire equine industry, and a YouTube keyword search of ‘horse trailer loading’ produced over 67,000 results, demonstrating considerable interest in this topic and the variety of solutions suggested. Drawing upon articles published over the last 35 years, this review summarises current knowledge on TRPBs and provides recommendations on their identification, management, and prevention. It appears that a positive human-horse relationship, in-hand pre-training, systematic training for loading and travelling, appropriate horse handling, and the vehicle driving skills of the transporters are crucial to minimise the incidence of TRPBs. In-hand pre-training based on correct application of the principles of learning for horses and horse handlers, habituation to loading and travelling, and self-loading appear to minimise the risk of TRPBs and are therefore strongly recommended to safeguard horse and horse-handler health and welfare. This review indicates that further research and education with respect to transport management are essential to substantially decrease the incidence of TRPBs in horses.

The effects of feeding space on the behavioural responses of cattle during rest periods offered as part of long-distance transportation

AbstractLivestock transport regulations in many countries require that cattle be unloaded for feed, water and rest when they are being transported long distances, but there are few evidence-based guidelines about how to most effectively manage and provide these requirements at rest stops. The aim of this study was to assess whether available feeding space at a commercial rest facility affected eating behaviour and general activity. Twenty-four trailer loads of cattle were selected for study, and each load was divided into two groups. The control group was provided ad libitum access to a single, round, hay-bale feeder. The treatment group had two round, hay-bale feeders and thus twice as much feeding space per animal. Cattle behaviour was recorded during a 5-h rest period using instantaneous scan sampling every 5 min. This was performed at the group level by counting the number of animals engaged in pre-defined activities, as well as individually by tracking a subset of focal animals from each group. Behaviour was categorised as one of the following: eating, drinking, lying, or ‘other’. Interruptions to eating were also quantified. Eating was counted as interrupted when, instead of being followed by a consecutive eating observation, it was interspersed by another behaviour. Doubling feeding space increased the mean proportion of cattle eating by 30%, decreased interruption of eating bouts and had no effect on drinking and lying behaviour. Increased access to feed has potential welfare and health benefits. These data can be used to inform standards for feeding beef cattle at rest stops during long distance travel.

Stability and Computer Simulation of Trailed Implement under Different Operating Conditions

The mechanics of a trailer system moving up and down sloping ground under different operating conditions was theoretically simulated. A computer program was developed to analyze the system to predict the effect of both the trailer loading weight and the slope angle on the off-road vehicle stability, traction ability, and drawbar loading. The results of this analysis showed that the off-road vehicle becomes unstable when towing a 3750 kg trailer uphill at 28° slope angle. Insufficient traction occurred at slope angles ranging from 15° to 18° corresponding to trailer weight of 3750 to 750 kg. The parallel component of drawbar pull reached a maximum value of (17318) N when the trailer was pushing the off-road vehicle downhill at 30° slope angle. The normal component (normal to the tractive surface) showed similar maximum values for both uphill and downhill motions of the system. The use of computer analysis in this study provided a significant improvement in predicting the effect of different parameters on stability and control of off-road vehicle-trailer combination on sloping ground.Keywords: Stability, Traction, Sloping ground, Drawbar.

Nonlinear ride analysis of heavy vehicle using local equivalent linearization technique

A multi–degree–of–freedom ride model of a typical tractor–semitrailer configuration comprising of nonlinear suspension damping mechanisms is developed. A local equivalent linearisation technique based on energy balance is employed to obtain the ride response of the nonlinear vehicle model. The critical behaviour of vehicle suspension(s) lock–up due to high magnitude of Coulomb (dry) friction is modelled and incorporated in the analytical technique such that the nonlinear behaviour of the system can be effectively simulated by the equivalent linear system. The effectiveness of local equivalent linearisation technique is demonstrated by comparing it with respect to conventional numerical integration and statistical linearisation techniques. A comprehensive parametric study is performed to investigate the influence of vehicle suspension characteristics, vehicle geometry, speed, highway profile and trailer loading patterns.

Evaluation of Operational Testing of Agricultural Trailer

Article summarizes evaluation of operational testing of developed agricultural trailer. Measurement was made to determine operating load of trailer. Experiment was made in static and dynamic mode. Sensors were installed on front hitch and selected components of axle and frame of trailer. Furthermore, this report describes comparison of results of FEM analysis and experimental measurement.

Behavior and handling of physically and immunologically castrated market pigs on farm and going to market1

Physical castration is a common management practice on commercial swine farms in the United States to reduce the incidence of boar taint and aggressive behavior. One alternative to physical castration (PC) is to immunologically castrate (IC) male pigs by blocking the gonadotropin-releasing factor (GnRF), thereby reducing levels of LH, FSH, testosterone, and androstenone. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the effects of IC on pig behavior, human-pig interactions, and handling during and after transport. Pigs were given the first immunization at wk 7 of the grower-finisher period, and second immunizations were given at wk 11, 13, or 14 of the grower-finisher period. Behaviors of PC and IC barrows were sampled at 3 time points after entering finishing at 9 wk of age: 7 wk before first injection, 16 wk (after immunization was complete) into finishing, and 1 d before marketing (16 to 19 wk into finishing). Handling during loading and unloading of trailers going to market was also quantified. Before the first injection, intact males showed increased aggression (P=0.014) and mounting (P=0.048), whereas PC barrows spent more (P=0.003) time feeding than intact males. There were treatment×time interactions for lying (P=0.018), aggression (P<0.001), and standing (P=0.009) behaviors. Few differences were observed in pig-human interactions between PC and IC barrows, with IC and PC approaching people in the same amount of time, but IC barrows were more (P<0.001) aggressive in chewing and rubbing on the test person's pant leg and boots. When handling and loading for processing in the home barn, PC barrows were more (P<0.05) vocal than IC barrows. Fewer dead and down pigs were observed among IC (0%) compared with PC barrows (1.17%). Immunological castration may result in similar or improved animal welfare compared to the stress of physical castration without pain relief.

Effects of trailer design on animal welfare parameters and carcass and meat quality of three Pietrain crosses being transported over a short distance

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of trailer design on the stress responses and meat quality traits of 3 different pig crosses: 50% Pietrain breeding with HALNn (50Nn), 50% Pietrain breeding with HALNN (50NN) and 25% Pietrain breeding with HALNN genotype (25NN). Market barrows (n=360), as a subset of 12 trailer loads of pigs, were transported from farm to slaughter on 6 dates in 2009 for 45min in either a pot-belly (PB) or flat-deck (FD) trailer, with 120 pigs/genetic group being represented. Temperature (T) and relative humidity (RH) were recorded by data loggers mounted in both trailers. Behaviours and handler interventions were video-taped at loading, unloading and in lairage. At exsanguination, blood samples were collected for the assessment of lactate, cortisol, creatine kinase (CK), haptoglobin and Pig-MAP concentrations. Meat quality was measured in the longissimus dorsi (LD), semimembranosus (SM) and adductor (AD) muscles of all pigs. Temperatures were warmer in compartments 6 and 11 at loading (P<0.001), compartment 11 during travelling (P=0.05), and in compartment 5 at unloading (P=0.01) of the PB trailer. Pigs unloaded from the FD trailer overlapped more (P<0.001), whereas (P<0.001) the frequency of jamming was noted for pigs unloaded from the PB trailer. Pigs with 50% Pietrain genetics overlapped and jammed more (P<0.001) than pigs with 25% Pietrain genetics, regardless of HAL status. Greater (P=0.03) CK levels were found in 50Nn pigs transported in the PB trailer, while 50Nn and 50NN pigs had greater (P=0.028) lactate levels than 25NN pigs. Carcasses from 50Nn and 50NN pigs were leaner (P=0.04), and the skin damage score was lower (P=0.04) in 25NN carcasses. Overlap-type bruises were greater (P=0.02) in pigs transported in the FD trailer. Pigs transported in the PB trailer had greater (P=0.05) pHu in the SM and AD muscles (P=0.013). Except for pHu in the SM muscle, all meat quality parameters were affected by the Hal gene (P=0.04). The use of a PB trailer for short distance transportation of pigs to slaughter negatively affected stress responses and meat quality. The greater proportion of Pietrain genetics in the selection resulted in leaner carcasses, but also in pigs being more difficult to handle. Crossbreeding appeared to have a greater impact on animal welfare and meat quality than vehicle type, but trailer type may emphasize these negative genotype-related defects.

The Effect of Raw Material, Cut Length, and Chip Discharge on the Performance of an Industrial Chipper

ABSTRACT In this study we examined the effect of specific factors on chipper performance by using a mobile industrial chipper in a real-life commercial setting. The comprehensive experimental design consisted of five replications per each combination of two types of raw material, two chip discharge systems, and two cut lengths (i.e., 5 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 40 replications). Each replication consisted of a full 18-m3 trailer load. Cut length was manipulated by using different drum types. When all else was equal, the doubling of cut length resulted in a 50 percent increase of average chip length, a 15 percent increase of net productivity, and a 15 percent decrease in fuel consumption. The handling characteristics of the raw material had a strong impact on chipper productivity, causing variations on the order of 20 percent. The discharge system had no significant effect on fuel consumption or productivity, but it did impact product quality and bulk density. Using a blower allowed increasing bulk density between 4 and 7 percent, whereas the installation of a belt conveyor reduced the incidence of small chips and fine particles by up to 30 percent.

Christchurch rocks

Christchurch rocks

Effects of grow-finish group size on stress responses at loading and unloading and the effect on transport losses from market-weight pigs

<h2>ABSTRACT</h2> The objective of this study was to determine the effects of grow-finish group sizes on stress response and transport losses from the market-weight pig. A total of 4,522 pigs (122.0 ± 10.6 kg; n=26 trailer loads of pigs) were used in a randomized complete block design. In the grow-finish barn, the small group size (SG) treatment had 36 pigs per pen, whereas the large group size (LG) treatment had 324 pigs per pen. Floor space and feeder space were standardized across treatments. Market-weight pigs were sorted from pen mates at loading and mixed with unfamiliar pigs during transport. Treatments were assigned to trailer decks in an alternating manner. Loading time, physical signs of stress, and transport losses were monitored by treatment. Loading time was analyzed using mixed model procedures, and stress responses were analyzed using generalized linear mixed model methodology. Loading time differed (P < 0.01) between treatments, with LG taking longer to load than SG. The SG size had lower incidences of (P < 0.01) open-mouth breathing and skin discoloration during loading, but there were no differences (P < 0.05) in incidence of muscle tremors or nonambulatory pigs at loading. At the slaughter facility, LG had a lower incidence of skin discoloration (P < 0.01); however, there were no differences (P > 0.05) for open-mouth breathing or muscle tremors. There were no differences for dead on arrival, nonambulatory pigs, or total losses. In summary, group size does not appear to affect the incidence of transport losses.

Undesired behaviour in horses: A review of their development, prevention, management and association with welfare

SummaryUndesired behaviours are a common problem amongst leisure and sporting horses in the UK and have a significant impact on the work of equine practitioners. In most cases, behaviours considered aberrant by owners are normal responses for their horses. Behaviours perceived as ‘naughtiness’ may in fact signify direct actions to avoid pain‐ or fear‐inducing stimuli. Examples that practitioners might deal with include trailer loading problems, avoidance of having saddlery equipment applied or reluctance to leave the yard. Even where no evidence of physical problems or pain can be detected, avoidance behaviours may reflect learnt responses that previously led to success in evading unpleasant consequences. Because owners often misunderstand the reason for such behaviours to develop in their horses, attempts at resolution often involve suppression or punishment based approaches. Although repeated subjugation of undesirable responses may ultimately appear to resolve the overt behavioural problem in some cases, in many others it can lead to a worsening of the problem, the development of alternative avoidance strategies or the horse learning that escaping the source of its pain or anxiety is impossible and ceasing to respond. Some horses develop abnormal or repetitive behaviours, which are not in the ‘normal’ behavioural repertoire. These stereotypic behaviours, sometimes termed ‘vices’, can indicate strategies to cope with a suboptimal environment. Indeed, their performance may serve to improve the situation for the animal. Attempts to suppress or prevent horses showing stereotypies, therefore, will generally exacerbate the underlying welfare problem. When dealing with either stereotypies or avoidance behaviours, it is important to recognise the role of learning in their development and maintenance. Resolution involves both understanding the underlying motivation for showing the behaviour and how it has become reinforced and established over time, for each individual case. The use of environmental change and/or behavioural modification techniques that are both successful and welfare compatible, are important in dealing with undesired behaviour in horses and selection of suitable professionals for referral an important responsibility for the equine practitioner.

Modellierung landwirtschaftlicher Schüttgüter für den mobilen Einsatz

At the current state the performance of self propelled harvesting machines is still being improved. Accordingly the strain for the drivers of harvesting machines and transport units is rising. With the aim to relieve the driver’s condition a model based approach has been analysed. The approach enables the automation of the loading process by the model based monitoring of the loading state. Concerning that the partly adverse harvesting conditions reduce the effi ciency of computerized vision based monitoring, model based loading might have the ability to play a future key role. This paper derives an overview of the loading model approaches developed during the research project ‘model based loading of agricultural trailers’, which is promoted by the German Research Foundation.

Trailer loading of horses: Is there a difference in positive and negative reinforcement concerning effectiveness and stress-related symptoms

Influence of heat or cold stress in sedated animals is unclear and requires further investigations. The present study aimed to evaluate the season’s effects on some clinical, hematological parameters and blood cortisol level in sedated Arabian horses with xylazine. Therefore, seven Arabian horses were used to investigate heart and respiratory rates, and capillary refill time and serum cortisol level were recorded before (0) and at 5, 15, 60, and 180 minutes postsedation. Heparinized venous samples were collected before (0) and 3 hours postsedation for analysis of hematological analysis. Arterial blood samples were collected before and 1 hour postsedation for arterial blood gases and electrolytes analysis. Repeated analysis of variance was performed (P < .05). Significant decreases have been observed in heart and respiratory rates at 5, 15, and 60 minutes postsedation in summer and only at 5 minutes postsedation in winter. Arterial oxygen pressure and arterial carbon dioxide pressure showed a significant decrease and increase, respectively at 1 hour postsedation in summer and winter. The serum cortisol levels were significantly higher in summer than in winter at 5, 15, and 60 minutes postsedation. In summer, the postsedation concentrations of cortisol did not change significantly than its values before sedation. However, in winter, the cortisol concentration decreased significantly at 5, 15, and 60 minutes postsedation compared with their value before sedation. The present study suggests that these season’s effects on the sedated Arabian horses could take into consideration in xylazine-sedated Arabian horses.

Observations of market pigs following transport to a packing plant

A field study was conducted to record observations of 41,744 market-weight pigs upon arrival at a commercial abattoir to evaluate the relationships between various independent factors and open-mouth breathing, skin discoloration, lameness, unloading time, and mortality during transport. Observations were recorded from 242 trailer loads on 46 separate days over a period of 14 mo. Travel time (<2.5 h or >or=2.5 h), wait time before unloading (<20 min or >or=20 min), loading pressure (<260 kg of BW/m(2) trailer floor space or >or=260 kg of BW/m(2) trailer floor space), ambient temperature while unloading (<17 degrees C or >or=17 degrees C), and trailer type [potbelly (PB); straight-deck with conventional unloading doors (SDC); or straight-deck with wide unloading doors (SDW)] were recorded for each load. Open-mouth breathing was more prevalent in pigs when transported on PB trailers compared with that of SDC or SDW trailers (P < 0.01), and at warmer temperatures (>or=17 degrees C, P < 0.001). Skin discoloration was more prevalent (P < 0.001) among pigs unloaded at temperatures >or=17 degrees C. Lameness was more prevalent (P < 0.05) after shorter travel times at greater loading pressure compared with shorter travel times at decreased loading pressure. Unloading time for PB trailers was longer (P < 0.001) than for SDC and SDW. Mortality rates during transport were minimal (0.06%) in the deliveries that we observed, and there were no significant (P > 0.10) relationships between mortality and any independent variable tested. Wait time before unloading was not associated (P > 0.10) with any of the dependent variables included in the statistical model. In conclusion, warmer ambient temperatures (>or=17 degrees C) and the use of PB trailers are associated with an increased incidence of open-mouth breathing and skin discoloration, and longer unloading times after the transport of market pigs.

Schüttkegel- und Beladungsmodelle für das automatische Überladen

In large harvesting machines, the focus is on the minimization of losses during overloading processes as well as the maximum exploitation of machine capacity. Assistance systems for overloading can facilitate work considerably in particular for unexperienced operators. With regard to automated overloading assistance, the computer-based visual monitoring of the loading status proves difficult due to the often adverse agricultural marginal conditions. Therefore, a model-based loading and overloading strategy can play a key role. This paper derives an overview of the software approaches developed during the research project ‘model based loading of agricultural trailers’, which is promoted by the German Research Foundation.

Effects of variations in the environment, length of journey and type of trailer on the mortality and morbidity of pigs being transported to slaughter

The month, average air temperature, relative humidity, number of pigs of each sex per trailer load, journey time, type of trailer and bedding, and waiting time at the processing plant...

Factors associated with fatigued, injured, and dead pig frequency during transport and lairage at a commercial abattoir1

The objective of this study was to identify environmental and management factors that are associated with the frequency of fatigued, injured, and dead pigs on arrival and in resting pens during lairage at a commercial Midwest abattoir. The terms transport losses or total losses refer to pigs that die or become nonambulatory at any stage of the marketing process. In this study, fatigued, injured, and dead pigs were summed into a variable termed total losses. Relative humidity (%), temperature ( degrees C), wind speed (m/s), and dew point ( degrees C) data were collected on 12,333 trailer loads of pigs. Week, sort from barn (first or third pig removal from barn), farm, normal vs. split load type (from 1 or multiple barns), load crew, driver, trailer, and wind direction were used as fixed effects in the model for the analysis of losses per load using generalized mixed models for Poisson distributions. Seven temperature-humidity indices (THI) were calculated and compared as model covariates. Load time per pig, trailer density (pigs per trailer x average BW/trailer space; kg/m(2)), wait time before unloading at the abattoir, and wind speed were used as model covariates. The log of the number of hogs per trailer was used to standardize the response variable. The linear covariate density accounted for the greatest portion of variance (based on F-value) followed by the fixed effect sort from barn, the fixed effect load type (pigs from 1 or multiple barns within a farm), load time per pig linear covariate, and THI. Pigs transported to the abattoir from June through July experienced fewer losses (P < 0.001) when compared with pigs that were transported from November through December. Keeping other factors constant, the log of total losses (%) per load increased by 0.0102x + 0.000541x(2) per unit of THI and 0.0191 kg/m(2) of density. Similarly, of 9 farms, the poorest-performing farm in regards to total loss percentage experienced 0.93% more losses per load when compared with the farm with the least loss percentage. This study demonstrates that multiple environment and management factors influence the incidence of market hog transport losses.

Modellbasierte Steuerung beim Überladen landwirtschaftlicher Güter

Bei grosen Erntemaschinen steht neben der maximalen Auslastung der Maschine die Minimierung der Verluste bei Uberladeprozessen im Vordergrund. Assistenzsysteme zur Uberladung konnen fur - gerade ungeubte - Bediener eine starke Arbeitserleichterung darstellen. Im Zusammenhang mit einer automatisierten Uberladeassistenz erweist sich die rechnergestutzte visuelle Uberwachung des Beladungszustandes aufgrund der zum Teil widrigen landwirtschaftlichen Randbedingungen als schwierig, daher kann eine modellbasierte Beladungs- und Uberladestrategie eine wichtige Schlusselrolle einnehmen. In diesem Beitrag wird das von der Deutschen Forschungsgesellschaft geforderte Projekt „Modellbasierte Beladung landwirtschaftlicher Anhanger vorgestellt.

Effects of season and distance moved during loading on transport losses of market-weight pigs in two commercially available types of trailer1

This study evaluated effects of trailer design and season on physical indicators of stress during loading and unloading and transport losses (dead and nonambulatory pigs) in market-weight pigs (BW = 129.6 +/- 0.40 kg). A total of 109 trailer loads of pigs (n = 17,256 pigs) from 1 farm were used in a randomized complete block design with a 2 x 4 factorial arrangement of treatments: 1) trailer design (potbelly vs. straight-deck) and 2) season (spring vs. summer vs. fall vs. winter). A subset of loads (n = 42) was used to examine effect of distance pigs were moved during loading [short (<24 m) vs. long (47 to 67 m)] on physical indicators of stress and transport losses. This study was conducted on 7 d per season at 1 farm with 4 loads (2 on potbelly and 2 on straight-deck trailers) being transported each day to 1 commercial packing plant. Pigs from different farm groups were mixed on the trailer and provided with 0.45 m(2)/pig floor space during an approximately 4-h journey to the plant. The percentage of pigs exhibiting open-mouth breathing, skin discoloration, and muscle tremors was recorded during loading and unloading. Additionally, dead pigs on arrival at the plant and nonambulatory pigs at the farm and at the plant were recorded. Effects of trailer design on open-mouth breathing and skin discoloration during unloading were dependent on season (trailer design x season interaction; P < 0.05). Pigs unloaded from potbelly trailers had a greater (P < or = 0.05) incidence of open-mouth breathing in the spring and summer and a greater (P < 0.05) incidence of skin discoloration in the spring, summer, and winter than pigs unloaded from straight-deck trailers. The incidence of total nonambulatory pigs at the plant was greater (P < 0.05) in the winter than in the spring and summer. The long compared with short distance moved treatment resulted in a greater (P = 0.001) incidence of open-mouth breathing and skin discoloration during loading and tended (P = 0.06) to increase the incidence of nonambulatory pigs at the farm. However, there was no effect of trailer design, season, or loading distance on total losses at the plant. In summary, physical indicators of stress (open-mouth breathing and skin discoloration) were increased with the long distance moved during loading treatment and were greater during unloading for potbelly than straight-deck trailers; however, trailer design, season, and loading distance had minimal effects on total transport losses.

Frequency of the HAL-1843 mutation of the ryanodine receptor gene in dead and nonambulatory-noninjured pigs on arrival at the packing plant1

Four Midwestern packing plants (designated as plants A, B, C, and D) were visited on 53 occasions, and tissue samples were collected postmortem from a total of 2,019 pigs to determine the frequency of the HAL-1843 mutation of the ryanodine receptor gene in dead (DOA), nonambulatory-noninjured (NANI), and normal animals. The sampled pigs came from approximately 130,000 animals from 454 farms and were transported on 861 trailer loads, with an average of 152 pigs/load and an average pig live BW/load of 125 (SD 7.02) kg/pig. Frequency of animals with the HAL-1843 mutation was low, with only 2.7% of the pigs being either homozygous recessives (nn, 0.45%) or carriers (Nn, 2.3%) for the mutation and 97.3% of the pigs being homozygous for the normal allele (NN). The mutation was present in all 3 classes of pig, with 1.8% of normal, 1.8% of NANI, and 4.7% of DOA animals having at least 1 copy. Two of the plants (A and C) had a greater frequency (P < 0.05) of carrier (3.7 and 3.5 vs. 1.1 and 1.0 for plants A and C vs. B and D, respectively) and homozygous recessive (1.0 and 0.9 vs. 0.0 and 0.0, respectively) animals than the others (plants B and D). There was a greater frequency (P < 0.05) of carriers in DOA animals than in the normal or NANI pigs (3.7 vs. 1.7 and 1.5 for DOA vs. normal and NANI, respectively). The 55 pigs that had at least 1 copy of the mutation came from 53 farms; therefore, the mutation was relatively widespread, being present in approximately 11% of the farms sampled. Although the HAL-1843 mutation is still present in commercial pig populations in the United States, its low frequency in DOA and NANI pigs suggests that it is not a major cause of these transport losses.