Impact Of Trails Research Articles

Traits and trails: Guild-specific effects of forest paths on bat activity

Human activities can substantially alter forest structure, consequently affecting forest animal communities. An important effect on bat behavior is given by canopy discontinuities like clearings or trails: while the former act as foraging sites, the latter are known to be used by bats to move inside the forest. For this reason, we can expect trails to have a strong influence on bat activity, with differences determined by the species' flying abilities. Here we assess the impact of trails on a local bat community by quantifying the effect of trails’ characteristics on the activity of bat species in relation to their wing morphology. We collected paired acoustic data and environmental variables along trails and in internal areas of a forest in central Italy. We modelled the activity levels of three bat guilds differing in wing morphology and identified the species mostly responsible for the observed compositional dissimilarity in between trails and internal zones by adopting a multivariate approach. Trail width and tree’s diameter were the main drivers of the observed differences between bat activity along trails and internal areas, but their effect differed among bat guilds. Edge and open-space foragers increased their activity along wider trails, while closed-space foragers showed an opposite trend; the latter also avoid trails in favor of internal areas especially when trees are larger. Four species yielded a significant contribution to the dissimilarity in activity levels between trails and internal areas, and namely Pipistrellus pipistrellus, Nyctalus noctula, Miniopterus schreibersii and Barbastella barbastellus. Our results show a clear effect of forest trails on bat activity, highlighting differences across functional groups in relation to trail characteristics. Furthermore, within guilds, not all species respond with the same intensity, suggesting differences in how different species are attracted to linear features and forest gaps. Overall, our results depict a complex interaction between forest trails and bat activity, suggesting that structural changes in forests can trigger diverse responses in bats. Future research on the topic may focus on assessing how such effects can affect bat communities at the landscape scale and longer time-scales.

Examining the Psychological Measures and Feasibility of Recreational Trail Rides in Reducing Cravings for Addictive Substances among Veterans: A Replication Pilot Study.

Equine-assisted services have been gaining popularity as complementary therapies for a variety of populations with a diversity of diagnoses. Interventions using equines might benefit the military Veteran population through building therapeutic alliance as well as reducing symptoms. This pilot observational study is primarily aimed to investigate safety, feasibility, and acceptability of equine-assisted services for Veterans with substance abuse disorders. It is the second pilot observational study, the first being completed in 2022. Secondary outcomes included recording the impact of trail riding on psychological measures among Veterans at a large Veterans Administration medical center. The study included a total of 32 Veterans who participated in trail riding sessions from May 4, 2022 to August 31, 2022. The study utilized the Positive and Negative Affect Scale, Adult Hope Scale, and Craving Experience Questionnaire to assess changes in positive affect, negative affect, hope components, and substance craving. The results indicated significant reductions in negative affect and substance craving after the first session, with positive effects observed in subsequent sessions. However, demographic and diagnostic variables did not predict significant changes in psychological instruments. Overall, the study demonstrated that trail riding was a safe and feasible intervention and may have potential benefits for improving emotional well-being and reducing substance cravings among Veterans. It is recommended that future studies research mechanisms of action, as well as conduct more rigorous investigations, including controlled trials using larger sample sizes and longitudinal research, to best determine lasting effects of these types of complementary therapies.

Eight-Year Survival and Growth of Sakhalin Fir (Abies sachalinensis) Seedlings with One Weeding Operation: Impact of Mechanical Site Preparation, Vegetation Release, Summer Planting, Stock Type, and Forwarder Trail

In Hokkaido, northern Japan, bareroot Sakhalin fir seedlings are conventionally planted in spring and fall, following strip site preparation that alternates managed and unmanaged strips. However, this method requires seven years of weeding due to encroachment of evergreen dwarf bamboo. Given diminishing forest labor availability, a shortage of workers for planting and weeding operations has become a problem in reforestation following clearcutting. We examined whether comprehensive mechanical site preparation (MSP) could reduce weeding frequency by preventing regrowth of dwarf bamboo and whether container seedlings could extend the planting season into summer. Over eight years, the survival and growth of summer-planted bareroot and container seedlings were examined on a fully MSP-treated site with only one weeding operation in the fifth year. Full-site MSP resulted in a shift of the vegetation from dwarf bamboo to deciduous plants, leading to high survival and growth rates of Sakhalin fir seedlings despite minimal weeding. Container seedlings exhibited superior establishment and maintained higher survival rates over eight years than bareroot seedlings. However, planting on the forwarder trail decreased seedling growth, and ultimately decreased survival under rare summer drought. Our findings indicate that container seedling summer planting and full-site MSP may represent an alternative approach to reforestation of Sakhalin fir, potentially reducing the need for weeding and extending the planting season.

Using personal tracking software data to aid the impact of illegal trails in national parks

ABSTRACT The use of personal tracking devices for recreational use and for safety when in the outdoors has grown exponentially in recent years. The large-scale data collected through these platforms has enabled our team to gain a greater understanding of the way in which people encroach onto National Parks causing environmental damage. The project used freely accessible data on the access of illegal trails primarily from motor bike and mountain bike use in the East Otway Range of Victoria. This region was an excellent case study as it is a mosaic of state and national parks and the signage and restrictive fences place by national parks have been aligned with the illegal trail formation. The data mapping has been coupled with measurement of the impact on the environment including the number and scale of the trails and the type of environment they are impacting including fauna and flora of national significance. The data has shown some useful information around the manner in which illegal trails are identified and concealed by users. Further, the research has uncovered ways in which trails have been concealed from authorities.

Microcracking treatment mechanism of semi-rigid base asphalt pavement with discrete-continuous coupling simulation

The microcracking treatment employs the falling weight to break the semi-rigid base into interlocking blocks to prevent reflective cracks in asphalt pavement. To study the microcracking treatment mechanism, the semi-rigid base microcracking simulation was performed through a discrete-continuous coupling model. After that, the coupling model was verified through a test road in Shaanxi Province, China, and the impact of convex points properties was studied. The results showed that the coupling model exhibited a peak compressive stress calculation error of less than 10% and effectively simulated the semi-rigid base cracking. Besides, the properties of convex points significantly impacted cracking. An appropriate area of convex points could effectively reduce upper layer cracks while inducing a greater number of cracks in the lower layer of the base. The three-convex falling weight produced significant cracks, and the semi-rigid base was microcracked into interlocking blocks. With convex points inner tangent circle radius increasing and length ratio decreasing, the number of upper layer cracks in the base grew while the number of lower layer cracks decreased. However, an increased length ratio could improve the horizontal extension capability of cracks. These findings contribute to improving the microcracking effect in engineering. After trail impact, if there is no apparent cracking on the semi-rigid base surface, it is recommended to use a three-convex point falling weight, slightly reduce the convex points area, and increase the inner tangent circle radius and length ratio. In the case of severe cracking, it is recommended to increase the number of convex points and their area, decrease the inner tangent circle radius and length ratio, or use a flat-bottomed falling weight.

Vegetation type and trail use interact to affect the magnitude and extent of recreational trail impacts on plant communities

Protected areas may prohibit large-scale deforestation and development, but still allow recreation via networks of roads and trails. Managers need to understand how the type of trail usage and the habitat the trail traverses influence the nature and extent of the trail impact. We measured the effect of trails on plant communities in a large, protected area in the southern Rocky Mountains of Alberta, Canada. We surveyed 118 transects adjacent to trails and 24 control transects at least 100 m from trails, recording the presence and abundance of all vascular plant species. We modelled changes in species richness, community composition, and the presence of exotic species as a function of trail type, vegetation type, and the distance from the trail edge. Overall, species richness increased with proximity to trails and community composition shifted significantly, with a greater likelihood of exotic species presence closer to trails. Heightened species richness and greater probability of exotic species presence extended a greater distance from off-highway vehicle trails than from footpaths, but only in shrubland and mixed forest vegetation. In addition, exotic species at higher elevations were most often associated with off-highway vehicle trails. Our study shows that the magnitude and extent of trail impacts on plant communities varies depending on trail type, vegetation type, and sometimes interactions between the two. The high frequency and intensity of off-highway vehicle trail use likely increases both propagule pressure and the severity of disturbance, while vegetation type determines light availability and hence invasibility. Managers can use this information to prioritize trail areas for exotic species monitoring and restrict high-intensity off-highway vehicle trails to less sensitive vegetation types at lower elevations.

Hiking trailheads, but not trailsides, associated with higher cover of non‐native plants’ trail impact on non‐native plant cover

AbstractQuestionNatural areas are commonly managed for multiple purposes, including both conservation and recreational use. Hiking trails are an extremely common feature in natural areas that enable recreational use, but trail construction and use can also facilitate the spread of non‐native species by altering trailside conditions, creating disturbances, and acting as a conduit for non‐native propagules to be carried into the backcountry.LocationPowdermill Nature Reserve, Southwestern Pennsylvania, USA.MethodsWe tested how distance from trailhead and trailside affected the understory plant cover and abundance and light and soil environment by establishing study plots at varying distances from the trailhead along perpendicular transects from the trailside.ResultsWe found that non‐native plant cover decreased with distance from the trailhead, with the majority occurring within 1 km of the trailhead, while non‐native cover increased by as much as 12% moving away from the trailside and toward the forest interior. Total species richness and diversity decreased with increasing distance from the trailhead and per‐species mean cover increased. Total cover decreased in plots with higher light levels.ConclusionsOur results suggest that hiking trails could be acting as a conduit for the spread of non‐native plants, with the greatest effect occurring near the trailhead where early detection and future management efforts could be concentrated. The measurable increase in non‐native cover moving away from the trailside is potentially a result of trails being constructed in an already‐invaded forest, with the effects of trail construction or active management reducing non‐native cover at the immediate trailside.

Minimal Impact of a Long-Distance Hiking Trail on the Plant Community in the Adirondack Park, New York State, U.S.A.

Hiking trails provide the opportunity for people to access, experience, and appreciate natural areas, but they also pose the risk of damage by converting vegetated areas to trail, providing the opportunity for off-trail hiking, and increasing soil compaction. To assess the impact of hiking trails on the plant community of a northeastern forest ecosystem, trail width was measured, and understory vegetation was documented at the trail edge, 3 m from the trail, and 5 m from the trail every 4 km along the Northville–Placid Trail from Benson to Averyville Road in the Adirondack State Park of New York State in August 2018. Soil compaction, canopy cover, and the tree species in the canopy were documented, including from the trail itself. The mean trail width was 65.18 ± 6.06 cm. Within the 183.39 km of trail sampled, 119,533.60 ± 11,113.43 m2 of forest were replaced with trail. Soil compaction was greatest in the trail and significantly lower off the trail. None of the canopies of the tree species was more likely to occur away from the trail than adjacent to or directly above the trail. Canopy cover did not differ significantly among sample locations. Cover of understory species was not significantly different near to or away from the trail. Species richness in the understory was significantly higher adjacent to the trail than 5 m from the trail, but trail width, canopy openness above the trail, canopy openness adjacent to the trail, and soil compaction were not significantly related to species richness adjacent to the trail. Understory community composition was more similar among plots within a sample location than between plots 5 m from the trail at adjacent sample locations. Collectively, the plant community outside of the trail itself is not significantly affected by the presence of the trail. The major impact of the trail is the loss of the plant community at its margins as the trail width increases. Hikers should be further educated and encouraged to use trails in ways that minimize the width of the trail to protect the ecosystem, along with trail managers continuing to increase the sustainability of the trail design.

Trail Impacts In A Tropical Rainforest National Park

Generally considered a sustainable economic activity, tourism can generate environmental deterioration due to a lack of planning. In this case, the edge effect is utilized to assess the degree of human interference in the environment. Although the Atlantic Forest is known as a hotspot because of its high species richness and endemism, it is also a threatened biome. In this context of anthropogenic pressure, our work assesses the edge-interior gradient in the regenerating forest based on the physical characteristics of vegetation and floristic composition, in addition to providing overall guidelines to effectively assist in its management. For this study, 30 plots of 25 m² (10 m x 2.5 m) equally distributed among the edges of trails and locations 20 and 40 m away from them were established, with the greatest length measured parallel to the edge of the tracks. Overall, 443 individuals of 122 species were investigated. More than 60 of them were endemic to Brazil, 13.3% were threatened and 9.1% were widely distributed species. Some species were present at all distances from the trails, others co-occurred, but the majority were exclusive to a single plot category. Differences in species diversity were also observed with an increasing trend in dominance at the edges of trails along with a decreased richness at the same distance.

T Cell-Specific Deletion of TRAIL Receptor Reveals Its Critical Role for Regulating Pathologic T Cell Activation and Disease Induction in Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis.

Recent evidence from several autoimmune animal models has demonstrated that TRAIL suppresses the activation of T cells and inhibits autoimmune inflammation via an apoptosis-independent pathway. However, it remains unclear whether the immunosuppressive effects of TRAIL are dependent on its direct effects on T cells or on other immune cells to regulate T cells for the induction of disease. Therefore, we generated mice with T cell-specific TRAIL receptor (TRAIL-R) conditional knockout to investigate the impact of TRAIL on autoimmune inflammation and disease induction in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). T cell-specific TRAIL-R knockout mice were found to completely reverse the TRAIL-mediated suppression of inflammation and disease induction, indicating that TRAIL-R on T cells is essential for TRAIL-mediated suppression of inflammation and disease induction in EAE. Moreover, the immune suppression effects were not due to the induction of cell apoptosis, but to the direct inhibition of T cell activation. In addition, RNA sequencing and transcriptome analysis revealed that TRAIL-R signaling significantly downregulated the genes involved in TCR signaling pathways, T cell differentiation, and proinflammatory cytokines. These results indicate that TRAIL-R on T cells is critical for pathologic T cell activation and induction of inflammation in EAE, suggesting that TRAIL-R serves as a novel immune checkpoint receptor in T cell-mediated autoimmune diseases.

The economic impact of recreational trails: a systematic literature review

ABSTRACT Recreational trails are a type of nature-based tourism providing various activities such as hiking, biking, rafting or horseback riding. Increasing investment in infrastructure and touristic services development has resulted in higher visitor expenditure and thus contributed to economic development. This study aims to review the current economic impact assessment studies on recreational trail tourism and to extract the main economic impact determinants. A systematic literature review analysis was applied in a quantitative approach about economic models, study cases of nature-based tourism, comparison of economic impacts. A qualitative analysis was then applied with an inductive approach to compare the economic impacts of nature-based tourism forms and identify the main determinants of economic impact. This study suggests that I-O is the most suitable theoretical approach to study the economic impact of long-distance trails, while the Keynesian multiplier approach and Ad hoc model are the most suitable approaches to study the economic impact of short-distance trails.

The Surface Brightness of MegaConstellation Satellite Trails on Large Telescopes

On large telescopes, the trails produced by MegaConstellation satellites will be significantly defocused due to their close proximity. As a result, their apparent surface brightness will be, under a range of conditions, almost constant during their apparent sweep across the focal plane. This paper derives a few simple relationships and evaluate the impact of such trails on operations of large optical ground based facilities.

A Comparison of All-Terrain Vehicle (ATV) Trail Impacts on Boreal Habitats Across Scales

ABSTRACT: Recreational trails are an agent of anthropogenic disturbance in nature reserves and other low human impact areas. Effective management must balance the desire of recreationists to use these natural areas with the need to maintain their ecological integrity. Environments with low productivity may be particularly susceptible due to low resistance and resilience to recreational impacts. Our study examined 28 all-terrain vehicle (ATV) trails within the Avalon Wilderness Reserve and the adjacent surrounding area on the island of Newfoundland, Canada. We found that different habitat types (boreal forest, heaths, and bogs) differ in resistance and resilience to both direct on-trail erosion and indirect off-trail vegetation impacts of ATV trails. Dry forested sites were more resistant to direct on-trail erosion but less resistant to indirect off-trail vegetation disturbance. Heath sites were less resistant to direct on-trail erosion but highly resistant to indirect off-trail disturbance. Bog sites had ...

The Effects of 2D and 3D Imagery and an Educational Message on Perceptions of Trail Impacts

ABSTRACT: The method of experiencing recreational resources, whether it be through on-site participation in an activity or viewing an image of the resource, might directly affect an individual's preference for, and evaluation of, those resources. In this research note, we explore the effect of three-dimensional (3D) displays, which are now widely available to consumer markets, on an individual's perceptions of degraded trail conditions. We also explore the hypothesis that viewing an educational message about responsible hiking behavior influences perceptions of trail conditions. The effects of imagery type and the educational message were tested through experimentally varying types of trail impacts (muddiness and erosion) and impact severity (minimal and severe) across 20 images presented to individuals in a controlled laboratory setting on a 60-inch, 3D capable LCD monitor. Results indicate neither the use of 3D imagery nor the presence of an educational message had a significant main effect on perceptio...

Impacts of park roads and trails on a community of Atlantic Forest fruit-eating birds

Understanding how birds respond to road and trail disturbance is urgently needed to support conservation strategies. We aimed to assess the impacts of pathways of various widths and uses on a community of fruit-eating birds, considering that the effect of pathways should be modulated by the sensitivities of bird species. Bird data were collected over a year in four sites inside an Atlantic Forest tract in southeastern Brazil: three with different types of pathways—a main road (20 m wide, high usage), a secondary road (10 m wide—low usage), a touristic trail (2 m wide, high usage)—and a control area (no pathways). Eight sampling plots were established along with eight point-count locations at the edge of each pathway. The control area had the greatest bird diversity when more weight is assigned to equitability, followed by the area with the main road. The main road, however, had the lowest richness and abundance of large frugivores and the highest abundance of omnivores. Pathway width, usage and fruit availability were the most important components structuring the bird communities. This study revealed that the impacts of pathways in forests, particularly when paths are large and/or extensively used, might have negative consequences for local communities of fruit-eating birds. It is likely that the lower abundance of large frugivorous birds in forest tracts near pathways will affect local seed dispersal processes. Park managers should be aware and care about the management and use of pathway networks in order to maintain the services provided by frugivorous birds.

The influence of layout on Appalachian Trail soil loss, widening, and muddiness: Implications for sustainable trail design and management

This research investigates the influence of layout and design on the severity of trail degradation. Previous trail studies have been restricted by relatively small study areas which provide a limited range of environmental conditions and therefore produce findings with limited applicability; this research improves on this limitation by analyzing a representative sample of the Appalachian Trail with significant topographical, ecological, use-related, and managerial diversity. Many trail science studies have also focused on a singular form of trail degradation, whereas this study investigates all three core types of trail impact: trail soil loss, widening and muddiness. Relational analyses with all three indicators provide a more cohesive understanding of trail impact and reveal interrelationships between trail degradation processes. ANOVA testing of the mean values for these trail impact indicators across categories of influential independent factors confirms and refines the relevance of core trail design principles, specifically the sustainability advantages of trails with low grades and side-hill alignments. Findings also reveal and clarify the importance of landform grade in determining the susceptibility of trails to degradation and the influence of routing decisions; these relationships have received relatively little attention in the literature. The results also reveal several methodological considerations for trail alignment metrics and trail impact indicators.

Individual Condensation Trails in Aircraft Trajectory Optimization

Contrails are one of the driving contributors to global warming, induced by aviation. The quantification of the impact of contrails on global warming is nontrivial and requires further in-depth investigation. In detail, condensation trails might even change the algebraic sign between a cooling and a warming effect in an order of magnitude, which is comparable to the impact of aviation-emitted carbon dioxides and nitrogen oxides. This implies the necessity to granularly consider the environmental impact of condensation trails in single-trajectory optimization tools. The intent of this study is the elaboration of all significant factors influencing on the net effect of single condensation trails. Possible simplifications will be proposed for a consideration in single-trajectory optimization tools. Finally, the effects of the most important impact factors, such as latitude, time of the year, and time of the day, wind shear, and atmospheric turbulence as well as their consideration in a multi-criteria trajectory optimization tool are exemplified. The results can be used for an arbitrary trajectory optimization tool with environmental optimization intents.

The Impact of Greenways and Trails on Proximate Property Values: An Updated Review

In the 1980s a “perfect storm” emerged that enabled trails and greenways to move to a central role in contemporary discussions of urban planning. It was comprised of three elements: Railbanking legislation that preserved railroad corridor rights-of-way and authorized their conversion to trails; federal funding for trails in transportation bills; and a public perception of trails as a priority urban infrastructure amenity. When trails are retrofitted through communities, they are invariably opposed by some proportion of proximate property owners who fear a devaluation of their property. To address this issue, a number of opinion surveys were administered between 1978 and 2006 to residents living proximate to trails. 16 such studies were reviewed. They revealed that in both urban and rural contexts only 6% perceived the trail to negatively impact their property value. However, while 47% of the 2,647 respondents living close to one of the 22 urban trails believed it increased their property’s value, this was believed by only 16% of the 1,212 who resided proximate to one of 10 rural trails. Opinion data provide general impressions, but they lack empirical verification and quantitative dollar amounts. The emergence of GIS technology and hedonic analysis in the post-2000 era remedied these limitations. Twenty hedonic analyses were identified and their results showed that proximity to a trail resulted in home prices that typically were between 3% and 5% higher than those of comparable homes in the area. In the past decade, several cities have developed urban mega-trails which are defined as large-scale investments that receive enduring visibility, have long-term mass appeal, and have a substantial impact on a community’s image and identity. Reviews of hedonic analyses undertaken at the three most prominent mega-trails in New York City, Chicago, and Atlanta confirmed the proximate premiums were generally much higher than those of ordinary trails. Invariably, this created a need to address issues of gentrification and social justice. The review’s findings suggest that future research on trails should focus on two nuances. First, it is clear that trails are not homogeneous. There is a need for studies to differentiate among trails with diverse characteristics. Second, the use of electronic data bases has resulted in hedonic analyses incorporating larger samples drawn from more expansive geographical areas. A consequence of this “scaling up” is that potentially substantial differences in the local impact of trails are obscured because only average values are reported. The averages likely underrepresent the impact of some trails and over-represent that of others. The need is for trail specific studies that disaggregate the data by specifying the characteristics of both trail type and abutting demographics. Subscribe to JPRA

The impact of TRAIL on proliferation of secretory prostate cancer PC-3 cell and LMO2 gene expression.

To determine the expressions of TRAIL protein and LMO2 gene in prostate cancer tissues with different differentiation degree and identify the influence of TRAIL on prostate cancer PC-3 cell proliferation. Surgical specimens from a total of 30 prostate cancer patients with radical prostatectomy were collected. The subjects were divided into three groups according to the different degrees of differentiation. TRAIL positive rate was detected by immunohistochemistry (IHC). LMO2 expression was assessed by Real-time PCR and Western-blot. PC-3 cell proliferation was determined by CCK-8 assay. The positive rate of TRAIL protein was significantly higher in moderately differentiated group (80%) and well differentiated group (100%) compared with that in poorly differentiated group (54.55%), respectively (χ2 = 27.33, p < 0.05; χ2 = 40.12, p < 0.01). Streptavidin-peroxidase (SP) assay showed that TRAIL protein expression in well-differentiated group was significantly higher than that in moderately differentiated group and poorly differentiated group. qRT-PCR result demonstrated that LMO2 mRNA levels in moderately and well-differentiated group were significantly increased compared to that in poorly differentiated group (p < 0.001). Also, the proliferation rate of PC-3 cells in well-differentiated group was significantly higher than that in well-differentiated and moderately differentiated groups (p < 0.05). Our data indicated that the positive rate of TRAIL protein increased in a prostate cancer differentiation dependent manner.

Impacts of roads and trails on floral diversity and structure of Ganga-Choti forest in Kashmir Himalayas

Roads and trails bring deteriorating changes in the structure and composition of forests. The present study investigated the impact of roads and trails on floral diversity and structure of Ganga Choti forest, Kashmir. Phytosociological attributes using systematic quadrate sampling were recorded and analyzed using multivariate ordination techniques including Principal Component Analysis and Cluster Analysis. The total number of species found in the area was 101 belonging to 47 plant families. The dominant family was Poaceae followed by Labiateae, Asteraceae and Rosaceae. The dominant species of the area included Pinus wallichiana, Abies pindrow, Viburnum grandiflorum, Sarcococca saligna, Poa alpina, Fragaria nubicola, Onychium japonicum and Poa pratensis. The dominant life form was Hemicryptophyte (31.68 %), whereas leaf spectra class was Microphyll (30.69 %). The average diversity value was 3.39 with a maximum of 3.71 at the control site and 3.08 at the disturbed site. Average tree density was 505/ha with a maximum of 680/ha at the control site and a minimum of 330/ha at the disturbed site. Intense deforestation was indicated by a stump density value of 330/ha. Results revealed that roads and trails have adversely affected the composition and structure of vegetation with high pressure on keystone tree species. Disturbed sites showed lower values of diversity indices, species richness and regeneration synchronized with high deforestation, overgrazing, erosion and increased frequency of invasive species. The study area needs immediate attention of the management for conservation of local forests by minimizing the impacts of roads and trails.