Traditional Victimization Research Articles

Desarrollo de un instrumento para medir cibervictimización en adolescentes

There is sufficient evidence on the existence of traditional bullying and its effects, but the increasing use of technologies as a way of coexistence among students has given rise to the need to study a new form of harassment: cybervictimization. The objective of this study was to determine the psychometric properties of a scale to measure cybervictimization reports in high school students. A non-probabilistic sample of 286 high school students who reported having been victims of cybervictimization was selected. The exploratory and confirmatory factorial analysis evidenced the empirical sustainability of a measurement model by means of three factors: harassment, invasion of privacy and denigration. In addition, the test showed evidence of concurrent validity by correlating the results with the reports of traditional victimization. It is concluded that, although it must be improved, the scale constitutes an instrument to measure the construct.

Does media use lead to cyberbullying or vice versa? Testing longitudinal associations using a latent cross-lagged panel design

Cyberbullying research has repeatedly demonstrated that the frequency of media use is a cross-sectional risk factor of cyberbullying and cybervictimization. However, we do not yet know whether the frequency of media use is also a longitudinal risk factor or an outcome of cyberbullying and cybervictimization, or both. Thus, the present study examines the reciprocal associations between the frequency of media use, cyberbullying and cybervictimization over 15 months using a latent cross-lagged panel design. The participants were 1199 German school students aged 9–17 years (M = 12.01 years, SD = 1.68, 55% female). The frequency of media use, cyberbullying and cybervictimization, and the control variables traditional bullying, traditional victimization, sex and age were assessed with a self-report questionnaire. The results show that the frequency of media use does not predict cyberbullying and cybervictimization. However, cyberbullying and cybervictimization predict the frequency of media use from the third to the fourth measurement point. Consequently, the frequency of media use is not a longitudinal risk factor but rather an outcome of cyberbullying and cybervictimization at one point in time. This implies that cyberbullying prevention and intervention programs should not focus on the frequency but on the way media are used.

A meta-analysis of the differential relations of traditional and cyber-victimization with internalizing problems.

This meta-analysis examined the associations between cyber-victimization and internalizing problems controlling for the occurrence of traditional victimization. Twenty independent samples with a total of 90,877 participants were included. Results confirmed the significant intercorrelation between traditional and cyber-victimization (r = .43). They both have medium-to-large bivariate correlations with internalizing problems. Traditional victimization (sr = .22) and cyber-victimization (sr = .12) were also uniquely related to internalizing problems. The difference in the relations between each type of victimization and internalizing problems was small (differential d = .06) and not statistically significant (p = .053). Moderation of these effect sizes by sample characteristics (e.g., age and proportion of girls) and study features (e.g., whether a definition of bullying was provided to participants and the time frame used as reference) was investigated. Results are discussed within the extant literature on cyber-aggression and cyber-victimization and future directions are proposed.

Psychoactive Substance Use and Problematic Internet Use as Predictors of Bullying and Cyberbullying Victimization

Research exploring the relationship between addictions and experiences of bullying suggests that problem behaviors may generally be associated with an increased risk of victimization. The aim of the present study was to examine the role of psychoactive substance use, excessive Internet use, and social support in both traditional offline bullying and online “cyberbullying” victimization in a nationally representative sample of adolescents (N = 6237; 51% male; Mage = 16.62 years, SD = 0.95). Results demonstrated that traditional bullying victimization was associated with cyberbullying victimization. Furthermore, psychoactive substance use and problematic Internet use predicted both traditional bullying and cyberbullying victimization. Finally, perceived social support was found to be an important protective factor against both traditional and cyberbullying victimization. However, psychoactive substance use and problematic Internet use accounted for only a small proportion of variance in victimization.

Cyber Victimization in High School: Measurement, Overlap With Face-to-Face Victimization, and Associations With Social–Emotional Outcomes

Cyber victimization is a contemporary problem facing youth and adolescents (Diamanduros, Downs, & Jenkins, 2008; Kowalski & Limber, 2007). It is imperative for researchers and school personnel to understand the associations between cyber victimization and student social–emotional outcomes. This article explores (a) gender differences in rates of cyber victimization, (b) overlap between traditional and cyber victimization, (c) differences in social–emotional outcomes across victimization classes, and (d) associations among cyber victimization and social–emotional risk, internalizing problems, and externalizing problems while controlling for traditional victimization among 1,152 high school students. Boys reported significantly higher rates of cyber victimization than did girls. Ten percent of students reported experiencing low levels of both cyber and traditional victimization (low dual), 3% of students reported experiencing moderate levels of both cyber and traditional victimization (moderate dual), and 1% of students reported high levels of both types of victimization (high dual). Three percent of students reported experiencing traditional victimization but not cyber victimization (traditional). There were significant differences in social and emotional problems among youth involved in victimization in various groups (i.e., uninvolved, traditional, low dual, moderate dual, and high dual). Lastly, cyber victimization significantly predicted variance in social–emotional risk and internalizing problems above and beyond that predicted by traditional victimization.

Bullying Prevalence in Students With Autism Spectrum Disorder

All forms of bullying, physical, verbal, social, and cyber, are prevalent among youth worldwide. An especially vulnerable population for involvement in bullying is students with an autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Although there are some studies that have investigated bullying in these students, many of these are beset by methodological issues. We surveyed 104 students with ASD on their bullying experiences in all 4 forms of bullying and examined their roles as victim, perpetrator, and bully-victim, comparing them with a group of typically developing students matched for age and gender. It was found that students with ASD reported significantly more traditional victimisation (physical, verbal, and social) than their typically developing peers. Cyberbullying victimisation was similar for the 2 groups. There were no differences between the groups on traditional bullying perpetration; however, typically developing students reported more cyberbullying perpetration behaviours. Implications for prevention and intervention are discussed.

Cyberbullying and adolescent well-being in England: a population-based cross-sectional study

Bullying is a major public health problem. We aimed to estimate the prevalence of cyberbullying and traditional bullying among adolescents in England, and assess its relative effects on mental well-being. In this population-based study, we analysed data from a nationally representative cross-sectional study, What About Youth, which enrolled a random sample of 298 080 school pupils drawn from 564 886 National Pupil Database records of adolescents aged 15 years, living in England, with matching postcode and local authority data, to complete self-report surveys between Sept 22, 2014, and Jan 9, 2015. Mental well-being, defined as life satisfaction, fulfilling social relationships, purpose in life, and a subjective sense of flourishing, was assessed using the Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale and was compared between those adolescents who reported traditional bullying (including physical, verbal, and relational bullying) or cyberbullying 2-3 times a month or more compared with those adolescents who reported traditional bullying and cyberbullying once or twice in the past couple of months or less. Traditional bullying was defined as repeated, intentional aggression that is targeted at a person who cannot easily defend himself or herself; cyberbullying was additionally defined as taking place in an electronic context (eg, e-mail, blogs, instant messages, text messages). 120 115 eligible adolescents completed questionnaires, of whom 110 788 adolescents completed measures of bullying. 33 363 (adjusted: 30% total, 20 668 girls [36%], 12 695 [24%] boys) reported any form of regular bullying in the past couple of months. 29 302 (27% total, 17 745 [31%] girls, 11 557 [24%] boys) reported physical, verbal, and relational (ie, traditional) bullying only, while 406 (<1% total, 276 [<1%] girls, 130 [<1%] boys,) reported only cyberbullying, and 3655 (3% total, 2647 [5%] girls, 1008 [2%] boys) reported both traditional and cyberbullying. Both kinds of victimisation were related to poorer mental well-being (adjusted analyses, traditional: b coefficient=-1·99 (SE 0·001); cyberbullying: b coefficient=-0·86 (0·06). Cybervictimisation accounted for less than 0·1% of observed variability in mental well-being compared with 5·0% of variability accounted for by traditional victimisation. Traditional bullying is considerably more common among adolescents in England than cyberbullying. While both forms of bullying were associated with poorer mental well-being, cyberbullying accounted for a very small share of variance after adjustment for offline bullying and other covariates. None.

Cyberbullying victimization in higher education: An exploratory analysis of its association with social and emotional factors among Spanish students

Few studies have analyzed cyberbullying victimization among university students in comparison to research conducted in other educational levels. The main purpose was to analyze the associations between the cyberbullying victimization and social and emotional factors such as involvement in traditional bullying victimization and perpetration, loneliness, self-esteem and perceived acceptance by friends. The results from a sample of 243 university students from social sciences confirmed the presence of cyberbullying victimization in the university context. Logistic regression revealed that perceived acceptance by peers was found to be significantly associated with cyberbullying victimization, such that those with low perceived acceptance were most likely to report experience of cyberbullying. Involvement in traditional bullying victimization during previous educational levels was also a risk factor for cyberbullying victimization, such that as involvement in traditional victimization increase, likelihood of cyberbullying victimization increases. Research and practice implications are discussed.

Cyberbullying: a storm in a teacup?

Cyberbullying has been portrayed as a rising ‘epidemic’ amongst children and adolescents. But does it create many new victims beyond those already bullied with traditional means (physical, relational)? Our aim was to determine whether cyberbullying creates uniquely new victims, and whether it has similar impact upon psychological and behavioral outcomes for adolescents, beyond those experienced by traditional victims. This study assessed 2745 pupils, aged 11–16, from UK secondary schools. Pupils completed an electronic survey that measured bullying involvement, self-esteem and behavioral problems. Twenty-nine percent reported being bullied but only 1% of adolescents were pure cyber-victims (i.e., not also bullied traditionally). Compared to direct or relational victims, cyber-victimization had similar negative effects on behavior (z = −0.41) and self-esteem (z = −0.22) compared to those not involved in bullying. However, those bullied by multiple means (poly-victims) had the most difficulties with behavior (z = −0.94) and lowest self-esteem (z = −0.78). Cyberbullying creates few new victims, but is mainly a new tool to harm victims already bullied by traditional means. Cyberbullying extends the reach of bullying beyond the school gate. Intervention strategies against cyberbullying may need to include approaches against traditional bullying and its root causes to be successful.

Moral Disengagement About Cyberbullying and Parental Monitoring: Effects on Traditional Bullying and Victimization via Cyberbullying Involvement

The indirect effects of moral disengagement about cyberbullying and parental monitoring on traditional victimization and bullying via cyberbullying involvement were examined in a diverse sample of 800 youth in Grades 3 to 8. After controlling for grade and gender, moral disengagement about cyberbullying and parental monitoring had an indirect effect on traditional victimization and bullying through cyberbullying involvement. Moral disengagement about cyberbullying and parental monitoring had a direct effect on traditional bullying. Results suggest that moral disengagement about cyberbullying and parental monitoring affect cyberbullying involvement and additionally impact experiences beyond the cyber context.

Cross-National Prevalence of Traditional Bullying, Traditional Victimization, Cyberbullying and Cyber-Victimization: Comparing Single-Item and Multiple-Item Approaches of Measurement

Many large-scale cross-national studies rely on a single-item measurement when comparing prevalence rates of traditional bullying, traditional victimization, cyberbullying, and cyber-victimization between countries. However, the reliability and validity of single-item measurement approaches are highly problematic and might be biased. Data from three countries were used as an example case to compare the singleand multiple-item approaches from a substantial and a statistical point of view. The sample comprised 671 Austrian (46.3% girls), 691 Cypriot (45.9% girls), and 604 Romanian (46.7% girls) 12 year old students. Data were collected via self-assessments with single and multiple-items. Because scalar measurement invariance could be established for the multiple-item measurement approaches, latent means between the three countries were compared. Substantial results of the singleand multiple-item approach did not differ for traditional bullying and traditional victimization, but differed for cyberbullying and cyber-victimization. As a consequence, we suggest using carefully validated multiple-item scales for cross-national comparisons.

Applying the concept of reciprocal roles to relapse prevention with offenders: a cognitive analytic therapy informed approach

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to explore the ways in which cognitive analytic therapy (CAT) informed reciprocal-role procedures could better inform relapse prevention planning for offenders in treatment programmes. Design/methodology/approach – The paper will explore the literature in relation to the efficacy of traditional victim empathy modules within accredited interventions as an intervention to reduce recidivism. Specifically, the paper will argue that current methods of victim empathy can pose a risk of increasing risk factors associated with recidivism and may be ineffective at reducing recidivism for certain clients. Findings – Offender treatment using victim empathy could be more effectively utilised from a CAT informed perspective. The paper will introduce “No more Victims” which is a newly designed module using a CAT informed relapse prevention approach to assist offenders to consider the reciprocal roles which take them closer to offending and how to exit these. Research limitations/implications – This paper argues that standard victim empathy modules may be difficult to access for some offenders and the validity of this approach in reducing recidivism is questionable. However, considering the role of the victim within offending behaviour interventions can be of value and this can be particularly helpful in terms of risk management and risk reduction. CAT informed approaches such as the “No more Victims” module provide a method of exploring victim issues in a way that is responsive to the needs of the offender and the module can be used as an adjunct to cognitive behavioural therapy interventions. This approach can also enhance victim safety planning and better inform risk management plans for the offender and those supervising them. It is suggested that this approach should be more widely used in other forensic interventions to enable clients to have valuable insight into the role they assume when offending and how the risk of this being re-enacted in the future can be revised. Originality/value – The paper will describe how consideration of reciprocal roles between the offender and victim could better inform relapse prevention in offender treatment programmes. An example of a session from the “No more Victims” module is provided.

Possible common correlates between bullying and cyber-bullying among adolescents

The present study investigates possible individual characteristics associated with traditional and cyber-bullying/victimization among 146 Greek junior high school students and their contribution in the prediction of the phenomena. Participants completed a self-report questionnaire, measuring online disinhibition, personality traits, social skills, and relations, as well as Internet use. Results indicated that although some students participated with the same role in traditional and cyber-bullying/victimization and shared common characteristics, most of them participated in either one or both phenomena with opposite roles. In terms of predictive factors, cyber-bullying was predicted by being a male, online disinhibition, online activity and psychopathic traits, while traditional bullying was predicted by being a male, online disinhibition and sensation seeking. Cyber-victimization was predicted by online disinhibition, assertion, and few peer relations, while traditional victimization by Internet skills and impulsive-irresponsible traits. Findings are discussed in terms of common and differentiated prevention and intervention practices.

The contribution of social support to children and adolescents' self-perception: The mediating role of bullying victimization

The purpose of this article is to report on a study that explores the linkages among self-perception, perceptions of social support, and bullying involvement among children and youth, with a focus on how bullying victimization mediates the association of social support and self-perception. We employ Harter's multidimensional model of self-esteem (1999; 2012), which highlights the inextricable link of social support to global self-esteem but does not explore the contribution of bullying involvement to this association. Our findings indicate that social support is associated with self-perception, and that traditional victimization mediates the association between social support and self-perception for three self-perception measures: social acceptance, physical appearance, and global self-worth. Contrary to our expectations, cyberbullying victimization was not found to mediate the relationship between social support and self-perception. These findings underscore the importance of exploring both traditional bullying victimization and cyberbullying victimization in relation to social support in order to understand their effect on development and wellbeing. More broadly, this study's finding that social support was a significant buffer to bullying victimization emphasizes the necessity of developing prevention and intervention strategies which are relationship-based and implemented early in young people's lives.

Do Cyber Victimization and Traditional Victimization Form Separate Factors? Evidence from a Preliminary Study

Few published studies measure electronic (cyber) bullying in conjunction with traditional (i.e., verbal, physical, and relational) forms of bullying, with even fewer using multiple items to measure the constructs. These two shortcomings have resulted in decades of inconsistent findings, uncertainty amongst experts about the structure of bullying, and no universally accepted measures to examine it. This study addresses these concerns by developing a new measure of victimization and examining its construct validity in a sample of 399 ninth-grade students. Exploratory Factor Analysis provides strong evidence that victimization is indeed multifaceted with cyber victimization emerging as a separate factor, distinct from school-based forms. Although, physical and verbal victimization items cross-loaded to form a single factor (labeled direct victimization), relational victimization emerged as a separate factor, distinct from cyber and direct victimization. Implications and limitations of these findings are discussed, along with how continued development of such measures may aid educational psychologists who work with victimized students regularly.

Cyber Victimization and Depressive Symptoms in Sexual Minority College Students

This study investigated the relations between sexual orientation, cyber victimization, and depressive symptoms in college students. Study aims were to determine whether sexual minority college students are at greater risk for cyber victimization and to examine whether recent cyber victimization (self-reported cyber victimization over the last 30 days) predicts depressive symptoms beyond traditional victimization and perceptions of high school cyber victimization. Findings from 634 college students (ages 18–22) across 25 U.S. states demonstrated significant relations between sexual minority status, particularly homosexual identification, and cyber victimization. The highest levels of depressive symptoms were reported by participants with high levels of both high school and recent cyber victimization and participants who reported high levels of both recent traditional victimization and recent cyber victimization. Findings should be used as a foundation for interventions geared to the sexual minority population.

The dangers of the web: Cybervictimization, depression, and social support in college students

Data on students’ perceptions of social support, traditional and cyber victimization behavior, and social-emotional well-being were collected from a sample of 267 university students in the Midwestern United States. One purpose of the current study was to examine possible sex differences in perceptions of the prevalence of cybervictimization experiences. The current study also examined whether cybervictimization accounted for additional variance in depression beyond traditional victimization and if social support would buffer the associations among traditional and cyber victimization and depression. Young men and women did not report significantly different rates of cybervictimization. Cybervictimization was significantly related to depression above and beyond that of traditional victimization. Social support was negatively related to depression. However, there was no moderating role of social support. The results of this study highlight the significant impact that traditional and cyber victimization may have on college students’ well-being. Social support was also an important factor in the relation to depression, however, it did not provide a buffer in the association between victimization and depression.

Examination of the change in latent statuses in bullying behaviors across time.

Involvement in bullying and victimization has been mostly studied using cross-sectional data from 1 time point. As such, much of our understanding of bullying and victimization has not captured the dynamic experiences of youth over time. To examine the change of latent statuses in bullying and victimization, we applied latent transition analysis examining self-reported bullying involvement from 1,180 students in 5th through 9th grades across 3 time points. We identified unobserved heterogeneous subgroups (i.e., latent statuses) and investigated how students transition between the unobserved subgroups over time. For victimization, 4 latent statuses were identified: frequent victim (11.23%), occasional traditional victim (28.86%), occasional cyber and traditional victim (10.34%), and infrequent victim (49.57%). For bullying behavior, 3 latent statuses were identified: frequent perpetrator (5.12%), occasional verbal/relational perpetrator (26.04%), and infrequent perpetrator (68.84%). The characteristics of the transitions were examined. The multiple-group effects of gender, grade, and first language learned on transitions across statuses were also investigated. The infrequent victim and infrequent perpetrator groups were the most stable, and the frequent victim and frequent perpetrator groups were the least stable. These findings suggest instability in perpetration and victimization over time, as well as significant changes, especially during school transition years. Findings suggest that school-based interventions need to address the heterogeneity in perpetrator and victim experiences in adolescence.

The Overlap Between Cyberbullying and Traditional Bullying

PurposeCyberbullying appears to be on the rise among adolescents due in part to increased access to electronic devices and less online supervision. Less is known about how cyberbullying differs from traditional bullying which occurs in person and the extent to which these two forms overlap. Our first aim was to examine the overlap of traditional bullying (relational, verbal, and physical) with cyberbullying. The second aim examined student- and school-level correlates of cyber victimization as compared to traditional victims. The final aim explored details of the cyberbullying experience (e.g., who sent the message, how was the message sent, and what was the message about). MethodsData came from 28,104 adolescents (grades, 9–12) attending 58 high schools. ResultsApproximately 23% of the youth reported being victims of any form of bullying (cyber, relational, physical, and verbal) within the last month, with 25.6% of those victims reporting being cyberbullied. The largest proportion (50.3%) of victims reported they were victimized by all four forms, whereas only 4.6% reported being only cyberbullied. Multilevel analyses indicated that as compared to those who were only traditionally bullied, those who were cyberbullied were more likely to have externalizing (odds ratio = 1.44) and internalizing symptoms (odds ratio = 1.25). Additional analyses examined detailed characteristics of the cyberbullying experiences, indicating a relatively high level of overlap between cyber and traditional bullying. ConclusionsImplications for preventive interventions targeting youth involved with cyberbullying and its overlap with other forms of bullying are discussed.

Emotional Problems in Traditional and Cyber Victimization

Previous studies show an association between traditional and cyber victimization. However, there seem to be differences in how these forms of being bullied relates to emotional problems in the victims. Few studies focus on symptoms of general anxiety and depression as separate variables when comparing traditional and cyber victimization. Self-assessment was used from a sample of 3,046 Norwegian adolescents: 1,583 boys and 1,463 girls, ages 15 to 16 years. Significantly higher prevalence of traditional victimization than cyber victimization for both genders was found. The prevalence of being a victim of either type of victimization was significantly higher for boys than girls. Structural equation models showed significant differences between traditional victimization and cyber victimization and their relation to emotional problems. There was a stronger association between traditional victimization and depressive symptoms than between cyber victimization and depressive symptoms. Results also showed a stronger association between cyber victimization and symptoms of anxiety than between traditional victimization and symptoms of anxiety.