Traditional Timber Research Articles

Merging prescribed fires and timber harvests in the Sierra Nevada: Burn season and pruning influences in young mixed conifer stands

In dry, productive forests where historically infrequent high-severity fires are now common, new silvicultural systems will be needed to better align management activity with the ecosystem's dependent disturbance regime of frequent low and moderate-severity fires. Merging timber harvests with prescribed fire programs can be advantageous because each disturbance provides benefits that the other cannot provide alone. We conducted a study aimed at providing information to managers interested in merging gap-based silviculture with frequent prescribed fire. We studied the influence of burn season (spring versus fall) on canopy mortality and damage by conducting prescribed burns in 13-14 year old stands that had been regenerated with gap-based silviculture. We also pruned sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana) and incense-cedar (Calocedrus decurrens) prior to burns to evaluate the influence of pruning on fire related mortality and damage. Fall (21%) and spring (19%) burns resulted in similar amounts of mortality two years following burns, but the fall burns consumed considerably more fuel compared to spring burns. Percent volume crown scorch was greater in spring burns and greater when crown bases were low to the ground. Fall burns were generally favorable assuming a management context where fuel consumption and survival is desirable. However, either burn season may be acceptable using fire as a thinning mechanism is desired to encourage the development of low-density, mature stands. As a pre-fire treatment, pruning did not clearly reduce fire-related mortality or crown damage. Considering that pruning itself is a form of crown damage, it could be considered counterproductive as a pre-fire treatment because of increased heat entering pruned crowns as a result of increased surface fuel and the loss of heat-buffering lower branches. Merging gap-based silviculture with prescribed fires in perpetuity may be initially complex operationally in the Sierra Nevada, but it offers managers a disturbance regime-guided method for sustaining heterogeneity at fine and coarse scales while maintaining low surface fuels. The timing of introducing fires into young stands as well as traditional timber management tools such as rotation ages and harvest intervals can be altered depending on exact objectives.

Mechanical Behaviour and Failure Mode Analysis of Penetrated Mortise–Tenon Joint with Neighbouring Gaps Based on Full-Scale Experiments

The penetrated mortise–tenon joint (PMT) connecting column and beam in traditional timber structures often has neighbouring gaps between connected structural members due to initial manufacture errors and damage accumulated over years. Influences of the neighbouring gaps on the mechanical properties of the PMT joint have been analysed based on a full-scale experimental study. Four typical gap values are determined according to the probability analysis of on-site survey results of a Chinese traditional timber structure. Four full-scale models of PMT joints with varied gap values have been established. Failure modes and deformation characteristics have been studied by quasi-static tests. Results show that the failure modes are the tearing of wood fiber along the grain at variable cross-sections. The loose penetrated mortise–tenon (LPMT) joints all have high deformability. The slip distance of tenon grows as the gap value increases. Limit angles of the loose joints lag with the increasing degree of loosening. The bending bearing capacity and rotational stiffness of LPMT joints decrease as the gap value increases, and the limitation value of the gap is analysed. The resisting capacities of LJ-2, LJ-3 and LJ-4 are much lower than that of LJ-1. The changing ratios are 18.5%, 55.4% and 70.4%, respectively. A three-parameter power function model of the mortise–tenon joint with consideration of the neighboring gap is presented. Research results provide important references on the condition assessments of the existing traditional timber structures.

Experimental and nonlinear finite-element analysis study on lateral push resistance of San-dou components perpendicular and parallel to grain in traditional timber buildings

Dou-gong is an essential part of traditional timber buildings in East Asia, having a decoration function and a load transfer function. The San-dou component, which is vulnerable to the lateral push force of the Gong, Fang, and purlin, is a critical structural component in the Dou-gong. In San-dou components, there are two distinctive types of surfaces subjected to lateral push force, perpendicular to the grain and parallel to the grain. However, few investigation into the structural performance of these two types has been done. Considering this shortcoming in the literature, in the current study, tests were carried out to obtain elasticity and strength characteristics on 90 timber specimens of fir and larch. After the material property test, 24 San-dou specimens were prepared to investigate the lateral push resistance. Consequently, an elastic–plastic damage assessment model was developed to calculate the load–displacement curve and possible damage distribution region of San-dou component, using the nonlinear finite-element analysis. According to the analyses, the failure mode for the San-dou component perpendicular to the grain is a horizontal crack parallel to the Dou-ear. Besides, the failure mode of the San-dou component parallel to the grain is an oblique crack, which begins from the inner edge of the Dou-ear to the lower part of the San-dou component. In the case of the other factors being the same, the bearing capacity of the larch San-dou component is 49.64–55.78% stronger than the fir San-dou component. Besides that, the bearing capacity of the San-dou component perpendicular to the grain is 32.85–38.22% higher than the San-dou component parallel to the grain. The research findings are expected to give a theoretical foundation for the structural evaluation of the Dou-gong system in traditional timber buildings and a scientific basis for elucidating the differences in the construction of traditional timber buildings in East Asia.

Investigation of the Effects of Different Types of Traditional Timber Load-Bearing Systems Used in Turkey on Building Behaviour

Recently historic timber structures in Turkey are unfortunately not given the value they deserve. Although timber structures are unique symbols of our cultural heritage, they are forgotten for natural and human reasons. On the other hand, when traditional timber structures standing today to repairs and / or reinforcements and restorations are examined, it is seen that timber elements according to the knowledge and skill of construction foreman are constructed with different types of structural systems. This matter reveals that choosing the right timber structural system is very important. This study the effects of their behaviour of traditional timber structural systems of different types widely used in the construction of timber structures in Turkey were comparatively examined. With this purpose, teen different structural system models with the Sta-stell program of the timber-framed (with Çatkı) Safran mansion which is widely used in Turkey were created and the findings were compared with each other by carried out structural analyses. The findings obtained reveal that buttresses are important in meeting, distributing and transferring the loads acting on the structural system, especially earthquake loads, to the foundation and the displacement distributions in the storey levels of the buttressed building models are less. In addition, the findings obtained show that buttresses that increase the lateral rigidity of timber structures increase the performance of the structure in question and reduce the internal forces of the structural elements. Turkey's widely used timber structural systems (in accordance with the Safran mansion architecture, which received the best restored mansion award) were modelled and analysed. The results presented are aimed to design recommendations and better understanding of the behaviour of different timber structural systems in today’s architectural practice.

An Experimental Study of the Hysteresis Model of the Kanchuang Frame Used in Chinese Traditional Timber Buildings of the Qing Dynasty

Kanchuang frames are important parts of traditional timber architecture in China. This paper used experimental and numerical methods to study the restoring force model of Kanchuang frames, which were used frequently in Chinese ancient timber structures, particularly in North China. The prototyped test model is a type of Chinese traditional timber architecture named Qilinyingshan. It was widely used in ancient timber buildings preserved from the Ming and Qing dynasties. This study analyzed the loading process and failure modes of the test model, and the skeleton curve and hysteretic curve data were collected. Moreover, a dimensionless skeleton curve model was developed based upon the findings. The hysteresis loops of the test model were also analyzed, and it was found that each hysteresis loop can be divided into several feature segments according to their stiffness at different loading stages. Regression analysis was also used to obtain the stiffness degradation curvilinear equations of the feature segments. Finally, a hysteresis force model of a Kanchuang frame was established. This study also found that the loading process can be divided into three stages: the elastic stage, in which all of the components are in good condition; the elastic–plastic stage, in which cracks gradually develop on the wall; and the new elastic–plastic stage, after which the wall collapses. It was found there was consistency between the restoring force model and the test results, indicating that the model is valid and reliable. The skeleton curve model and hysteretic model provide reference for the nonlinear seismic response of ancient timber architecture.

Rotational Performance of Traditional Straight Mortise-Tenon Joints with Gap: Theoretical Model and Numerical Analyses

ABSTRACT Gaps are very common in the mortise-tenon (M-T) joints of traditional timber structures. To investigate the rotational behavior of straight M-T joints with gaps, the mechanical mechanism and contact states between the mortise and tenon for the straight M-T joints with gaps were analyzed. A moment-rotation theoretical model of straight M-T joint with gap, based on the embedded compressive and friction mechanisms of the contact surfaces, was proposed and verified by the cyclic loading tests of four 1/3.2-scaled straight M-T joint specimens with different gaps. To further predict the deformation modes and hysteretic behavior of the joint involving gap, nonlinear numerical analyses were performed using ABAQUS. Results indicated that the predictions of theoretical and numerical model were in good accordance with the experimental results. Then, the parametric analyses were carried out based on the validated finite element model, the effects on the rotational behavior of straight M-T joint of major parameters, such as the friction coefficient of wood, vertical gaps, and horizontal gaps, were analyzed. It is found that the initial rotational stiffness, yielding moment, peak moment, and ductility of the joint with gap increased with an increase in the friction coefficient. The initial rotational stiffness, yielding moment, and peak moment of the joint remarkably decreased with the increase of the vertical and horizontal gap. The ductility of joint significantly reduced with the increasing vertical gap, however, the joint slightly improved with an increase in the horizontal gap.

Simplified Calculation Model for Typical Dou-Gong Exposed to Vertical Loads

Early Chinese traditional timber buildings preserved until now are mainly ancient buildings built in the time of the Song and Yuan dynasties (960–1368 AD). Dou-gongs of these ancient timber buildings are complex structures. Their complexities, however, are difficult to fully consider in large-scale structural analyses. Therefore, it is necessary to develop a reliable simplified modeling of Dou-gongs, which is applicable for large-scale analyses. In this study, the features of Dou-gongs of early Chinese traditional timber buildings were firstly reviewed, referring to the historical literature and on-site investigation. Then, the mechanical behavior of typical Dou-gongs exposed to vertical loads was examined through refined finite element analyses, where the solid elements were adopted and geometric characteristics were considered. According to the results of the load transferring path, a new beam-truss model representing a simplified Dou-gong was developed, and its accuracy was numerically verified. The results showed that the gravity load of the roof above the column is transferred down through the central axis; the weight of the overhang of the roof is transferred diagonally to the bottom of the Dou-gong, passing through the front of the cantilever components; in the collapse condition, the vertical load is transferred to the two sides through horizontal beams. Compared with the results of the refined model, the new beam-truss model proposed shows an acceptable computational accuracy concerning stress, deformation and stiffness, with 90–97% reduction in the calculation time consumption, which makes it suitable for large-scale structural analyses of early Chinese traditional timber buildings.

Effect of shear force on the rotational performance of straight mortise-tenon joints

Straight mortise-tenon joints resist combined shear and bending action, and their rotational performance significantly influences the seismic performance of traditional timber structures in Asian countries. However, current theoretical study on the rotational performance of such joints was based on pure bending action and neglected the influence of shear force. This paper detailed explained the effect of shear force on the load-resisting mechanism of straight mortise-tenon joints. A theoretical analysis method on the moment-rotation relationship of these joints with consideration of shear force was developed and compared to that based on pure bending action. The proposed theoretical method was verified by using experimental results. Parametric study was further conducted, key factor was identified to evaluate the effect of shear force on the rotational performance of joints, and the applicability of theoretical analysis methods with or without consideration of shear force was given. The research indicated that under combined shear and bending, the rotational performance of straight mortise-tenon joints was mainly influenced by the ratio of the net frame span, sn, to the tenon depth dt. With the decreasing of sn/dt, shear force increasingly reduced the rotational stiffness and moment-carrying capacity of the joints. When sn/dt < 10, the influence of shear force should be considered and the moment-rotation curve of the joints should be calculated by using the theoretical analysis method considering shear and bending action. When sn/dt ≥ 10, the influence of shear force can be neglected and the moment-rotation curve of the joints can be calculated only considering bending.

Replacing coal in Georgia's power plants with woody biomass to increase carbon benefit: A mixed integer linear programming model

To combat climate change, reducing carbon emissions from coal consumption in the power sector can be an effective strategy. We developed a price-exogenous mixed integer linear optimization model satisfying both traditional timber demand in Georgia and its neighboring states (Alabama, Florida, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Tennessee) and additional bioenergy demand to replace coal in the power plants of Georgia for 50 years, maximizing social welfare. We used Forest Inventory & Analysis unit level yield of five forest types (planted softwood, natural softwood, upland hardwood, bottomland hardwood, and mixed forest), timber demand, and price information, and developed three scenarios. In the Baseline scenario, traditional annual timber demand (152 million tons of wood) was satisfied with no coal replacement. In Scenario 1, 100% coal (7.34 million tons annually) was replaced using pulpwood only, along with traditional demand. In Scenario 2, also with traditional demand, 100% coal was replaced using pulpwood and logging residues. It would require approximately 336 and 98 thousand acres of additional annual timberland harvested in Scenario 1 and Scenario 2, respectively, compared to Baseline (1280 thousand acres). During 50 years, a total of 9.3, 10.2, and 9.6 billion tons of timber was produced in Baseline, Scenario 1, and Scenario 2, respectively. About one-third of all torrefaction plants would be located in the central region of Georgia. The net change in stand carbon was positive in all three scenarios—the highest in Baseline (1330 million tons C), followed by Scenario 2 (1261 million tons C), and the lowest in Scenario 1 (872 million tons C). About 240 million tons of carbon was avoided by using biomass instead of coal in Scenario 1 and Scenario 2. In Baseline, with continued emission from coal usage in the power plant for 50 years (285 million tons C), net carbon benefit was 1046 million tons C. Replacing 100% of coal with both pulpwood and logging residues provided a net benefit of 1501 million tons C, about 43% higher compared to baseline.

Architectural language of the Southern Fujianese traditional Chinese temple timber frame structure in West Malaysia: a cultural semiotics analysis

PurposeThis paper examines the relationship between traditional timber frame structure and the diasporic identity of the Southern Fujianese Chinese community in West Malaysia. It analyses the cultural semiotics of Southern Fujianese traditional Chinese temple timber frame structure architectural language. This study addresses the under-examined domain of Chinese cultural identity representation through the architecture of traditional Chinese temples in Malaysia. It seeks to understand its underlying structure and process involved in revealing its disposition within the cultural phenomena from the perspective of Chinese cultural semiotics.Design/methodology/approachSelected Southern Fujianese traditional Chinese temples in West Malaysia built between the 18th to the 19th century that retain the traditional timber frame structure were investigated through field survey and focused publication review. Historical interpretive analysis and typological analysis supplement the cultural semiotics analysis to assess the timber frame structure attributes concerning architectural language expressions.FindingsFindings reveal that the architectural language signifiers of the structural disposition of the timber framework and its corresponding formal articulation establish a clear statement of the Southern Fujian Chinese cultural identity.Originality/valueThe evaluation of the cultural identity signifiers helps to understand the underlying structure and process of the Chinese cultural semiotics in architecture. Results of this research substantiate the significance of timber frame structure in preserving the architectural heritage of the Southern Fujianese traditional Chinese temples. They provide important references for conservation and cultural studies of such building typology.

Species Diversity and Endemicity in the Angolan Leguminosae Flora

Angola has a great diversity of species and ecosystems and a high level of endemism. However, knowledge of the native flora remains very incomplete and outdated. Leguminosae is the largest family in the country, including many species which are of local or more regional economic importance. Based on an extensive review of bibliographic sources, natural history collections, and online databases, the checklist of Angolan Leguminosae plants was updated, including data on their native distribution, conservation status, and principal uses. The endemic taxa were the subject of additional investigation, including the main habitat, the number of collections preserved in herbaria, and the locality of the first collection. We identified 953 Leguminosae taxa occurring in Angola, of which 165 are endemic to the country. Among the 180 genera found, Crotalaria (136) and Indigofera (96) have the highest number of taxa. Almost half of the studied species have important applications, mainly in traditional medicine (385), forage (267), timber (188), and food (120). Nevertheless, only 27.7% have been assessed according to the IUCN Red List and 10 species are classified as threatened. Thirty-three endemics are known only from the type specimen, revealing the lack of knowledge on these species and the need for further field research. More than 30 type specimens were collected in the Serra da Chela, which highlights the importance of this region for biodiversity conservation.

Effects of gaps on the rotational performance of traditional straight mortise-tenon joints

Gaps are very common in the mortise-tenon (M-T) joints of traditional timber structures, and they significantly reduce the rotational performance of joints. To evaluate the effect of gaps on the rotational behavior of straight M-T joints, we fabricated four 1/3.2-scaled Chinese traditional straight M-T joint specimens using Pinus sylvestris logs, one without a gap and three with different gaps, and subjected them to cyclic loading tests strictly in accordance with the international test standard ISO-16670. The failure modes, strength, initial rotational stiffness, ductility, deformation, and energy dissipation capacity of the joints were investigated. The results indicated that the apparent slippage, the tenon pulled out, and the plastic deformation for the mortise edge were exhibited in the specimens with gaps. The bending moment, initial rotational stiffness, and energy dissipation capacity of the joints with gaps gradually decreased as the damaged degree increased. The ultimate rotation of joints with gaps reached 0.2 rad, indicating a good deformation capacity. Furthermore, the gap can aggravate the degree of stiffness degradation of the M-T joint at the same rotation. Based on the experimental results, the empirical degradation formulas related to key cyclic performance parameters, considering the gap effects, were established. Based on the degradation relationships of the key hysteretic parameters of the joint with gaps, a hysteretic model for a joint with a gap was proposed and validated. Good agreement between the model predictions and experimental results was observed.

ENHANCEMENT WOOD CARVING IN PRODUCING PREMIUM PRODUCT

Engraving is a process of sculpting, carving and scratching a pattern. In ancient times the art of wood carving became a symbol of status of noble and courtiers. According to Halim Nasir (1986) the courtiers and sultans became patrons to revive the glory of wood carving. This shows that wood carving is high dignity. The Malays emphasizes every work of art and is designed by the soul attempts to communicate with the public in feel, thinking and interpretations, (Nazzri, 2016). However, the price of traditional wood carving product is too high and difficult to educate the public to love wood carving products. The discrepancy between the two modern and traditional industries makes the development of sculpture difficult to compete with modern products. Besides that, wood carving is also used at will in its placement in the design. This study will lead to several main objectives among which is to know the issues faced by these two industries and know the correct placement of carving in the design so as not to violate its philosophy and ethics. Methodology of the study is using interview data and ethnography with master craft. This research and development will involve ten members of timber manufacturing company around Malaysia which is from modern and traditional timber product companies. This research was conducted for 5 days from 14th -18th October 2020 in Temerloh, Pahang. Through this research found three mains issue they facing in order to preserve the wood carving and culture in product and design. The traditional wood carving can be applied on furniture or equipment and preserve the philosophy trough educate the modern practitioner and involvement of ‘pandai kayu’. The application of heritage in the first phase is very important so that it reaches the community indirectly and is not considered outdated.

Fan-shaped Shear Dampers Strengthen Mortise-tenon Joints in Chinese Traditional Timber Structures

ABSTRACT Looseness, deformation, and tenon pulled in the mortise-tenon joint constitute the primary causes of failure in traditional Chinese timber structure building. However, the introduction of the joint damper technology and installation of the fan-shaped shear damper at the mortise-tenon joints of traditional wooden structure solves these issues. Herein, we explored the strengthening effect of dovetail mortise-tenon joints with dampers. We designed six dovetail mortise-tenon joint models, three without dampers, and the other three were installed with dampers. Using the low cycle repeated loading test, we examined the hysteretic response, skeleton curve, stiffness degradation curve, and equivalent viscous damping coefficient curves of the six test models. Consequently, we established that the joint damper effectively controls the joint tenon pulled problem and enhances energy dissipation, strength, and rotational stiffness. Besides, the ultimate bearing capacity of the damper models was nearly four-fold that of models without dampers.

Research on seismic performance of traditional Chinese hall-style timber buildings in the Song and Yuan dynasties (960\u20131368 AD): a case study of the main hall of Baoguo Temple

The hall-style timber frame built in the Song and Yuan dynasties (960–1368 AD) is one of the most important structural prototypes of the traditional timber architecture in East Asia. The current research, through a typical case of the main hall of Baoguo Temple in Ningbo, China, aims to present an accurate and effective seismic performance evaluation method applicable to hall-style timber structures without time–cost expenditure. To obtain more realistic seismic response of hall-style timber frame, a simplified numerical model of the main hall of Baoguo Temple is established based on in situ measurements and low-cycle reversed loading tests results of mortise–tenon joints, moreover, nonlinear static pushover analysis has been performed to quantify the seismic performance levels under five loading conditions. The generalized force–deformation relationship of the timber plastic hinges is modified regarding to the moment–rotation curves of four special mortise–tenon joints. The seismic behaviour of global hall-style timber frame is evaluated through capacity spectrum method and verified by time history analysis, local failure mechanisms are evaluated by the occurrence sequence of plastic hinges. Finally, a performance-based assessment method adequate for the traditional hall-style timber architectures has been proposed with comparison to the current codes. The results have shown that the structural stiffness of the width-direction is less than that of the depth direction due to the asymmetrical configuration of the timber frame, and the building can maintain a stable state under large lateral displacement before collapsing. The inter-storey drift angles of the building under peak ground accelerations of 0.1 g, 0.2 g, and 0.3 g are less than the suggested ultimate values in the current local codes, however, the main hall represents to be more vulnerable to damage when suffer seismic action along the width-direction. This research can provide a reference for seismic performance evaluation and preventive conservation of ancient hall-style timber architectural heritage.

Analytical model for the capacities of traditional Japanese timber frames with deep beams

In this study, the lateral resistance of a deep beam with beam-column joints in a timber frame applied in traditional Japanese residential houses and their possible interactions are discussed through experimental and theoretical analysis. When the frame deforms under lateral force, the rotation of the deep beam is constrained by the columns on both sides, and an axial force is generated on the deep beam along the diagonal direction. Via integration with beam-column joints, an estimation method of the lateral resistance of a traditional timber frame with a deep beam is proposed and confirmed with comparative tests. The results indicate that the resistance of the deep beam is affected by both the magnitude of the moment of the beam-column joints and the difference between the joint moments on the left and right sides of the beam. Meanwhile, the axial force on the deep beam is conducive to delaying the occurrence of ultimate failure of the beam-column joints.

Experimental study on flexural properties of timber columns with interior notches in traditional Japanese timber structures

In this study, the columns with interior notches in traditional Japanese timber frames were selected as the research object, and static bending tests were performed to investigate the effect of interior notches on the flexural properties of columns. First, the bending behaviors of columns under three-point and four-point load configurations were compared to obtain a suitable referenced strength of a column without notches. The reduction in the load-bearing capacity of columns with different types of interior notches in traditional Japanese timber structures was determined through experimental tests and statistical analysis. The results indicated that the mean bending strength of columns with three different notch types was consistent with those without notches, the continuous timber on both sides of the notch had a beneficial effect on maintaining a higher strength and reducing the stress intensity around the notch. The fracture position and the standard deviation of the bending strength were affected not only by the notch depth, but also by the notch width on the tensile side of the column.

Japan and the West: An Architectural Dialogue

Japan and the West: An Architectural Dialogue

Tabique walls, a light timber structure – constructive details and material characterization

This document aims to give additional contribution into the study of tabique walls, a light timber wall existing in the old constructions in Portugal, and for which there is still a lack of information. This work includes an inspection campaign on 11 buildings located at the historic centre of the Portuguese city of Viseu. The information obtained allowed to create databases of the constituent elements and of the constructive details of these traditional timber walls, which may give guidance to understand the overall behaviour of these elements. Moreover, the collection of samples of timber, mortar and metallic connectors allowed carrying out laboratory tests to determine their physical and mechanical properties, contributing to a better global knowledge of tabique walls.

Experimental Test of The Gap Reinforced Fastened Connection (GRFC): A highly stiff and ductile reinforced connection concept with reduced pinching for timber structures

This paper presents a new reinforced connection concept entitled Gap Reinforced Fastened Connection (GRFC), from the theoretical formulation of the concept to a mechanical characterization of an example application through monotonic and cyclic tests. The proposed reinforcement incorporates a steel plate bonded with epoxy to the wood, separating another steel plate with a gap at the shear plane. The failure mechanism consists of enforcing the development of plastic hinges of fasteners at this gap interface, avoiding the crushing in the wood and obtaining a behavior dependent only on the properties of the fasteners and their interaction with the reinforcement plates. The results of different gap sizes and fastener diameters were reported and discussed. Improvements of the stiffness-ductility ratio were achieved, depending on the fastener diameter and gap selected. From ductility values obtained in the cyclic performance it was found that for connections with slender fasteners, it was easier to obtain a highly ductile classification according to Eurocode 8. Also, cyclic tests have shown that, energy dissipation is most effective when multiple small diameter fasteners are used, reducing the pinching and impairment of strength in the connection. A reduced spacing between fasteners can be obtained through the incorporation of GRFC and using the requirements prescribed for steel structures instead of timber, eliminating the risk of grouping effects that trigger brittle failure modes. The research gives an example of the application of the concept, which allows to redefine the traditional timber connection design used in hold-down connections, in addition to laying the groundwork for its application in other types of connections.