Traditional Taboos Research Articles

Public Confession and the Moral Universe of the East African Revival

When the East African Revival emerged as a distinct movement in Rwanda and Uganda in the early 1930s, one of its most noticeable and controversial characteristics was the prevalence of public confession of personal sin. The revival made public many of these sins that African converts had kept hidden. Many confessed to stealing objects or money from mission stations or other employers, others admitted to sexual indiscretions, others even brought ‘witchcraft’ objects to revival fellowship meetings in order to be burned. Revivalists learned to be morally perspicacious. They sought to locate any hint of sin from their own lives and often took the next step of publicly identifying others' sins. This paper analyses the content of what African revivalists named as ‘sinful’ as it was recorded by European missionaries and bishops, African Balokole and British District Commissioners. It argues that revivalists developed a common moral discourse through their public confessions and testimonies, which in turn formed a common moral imagination across the revival. The broader benefit of tracing the shifts of these definitions is that one can then observe how revivalists interacted with traditional taboos and social mores, as well as changes that stemmed from colonial systems of governance and economics. This paper, therefore, illustrates that the revival was distinctly appealing to people across various colonial and social boundaries because it allowed them to name particular threats to their spiritual and temporal lives while connecting them through a new sense of fellowship.

The Role of Traditional Laws and Taboos in Wildlife Conservation in the Oban Hill Sector of Cross River National Park (CRNP), Nigeria

Efforts to integrate rural people into biodiversity conservation through community-based conservation programs is an old tradition. These efforts were largely based on economic incentives, with little or no attention given to the role of culture and traditions in building support for conservation. Although these strategies are useful in promoting conservation and local empowerment, they are still fragile. Scholars suggest that incorporation of traditional values which reflect locally important cultural practices of the people into the management of conservation areas in Africa will help in their successful conservation. There is a strong need to assess cultural practices; traditional laws and taboos of the people in protected areas, and how they have assisted conservation in the past. To understand how such practices could be strengthened and incorporated into natural resources management and conservation strategies, there is a need to have a general overview of existing practices. The study analyzes the ways in which cultural practices and value systems of the people of Oban Sector of Cross River National Park Nigeria, have aided conservation in the past and how such practices can be encouraged, strengthened and replicated for sustainable natural resources management in the study area and possibly proposed for adoption elsewhere. Ten cultural institutions and seven laws and taboos which regulate the use of resources were recorded in the area. These laws and taboos were respected by all indigenes. Eleven animal species were found to be forbidden by the people. Some of the tabooed animals were for spiritual reasons while some were for medicinal purposes. Every community had sacred forests, called Mgbe forest (Eten Mgbe) The social organizations in the area ensured that these taboos are obeyed. Presence of other tribes, new religions/westernization, use of modern hunting equipments and poverty pose a threat to the effectiveness of these taboos as a conservation tool. Adaptation of some aspects of these taboos may be valuable for wildlife conservation, particularly in protected areas.

Analysis of Patterns of Bushmeat Consumption Reveals Extensive Exploitation of Protected Species in Eastern Madagascar

Understanding the patterns of wild meat consumption from tropical forests is important for designing approaches to address this major threat to biodiversity and mitigate potential pathways for transmission of emerging diseases. Bushmeat consumption has been particularly poorly studied in Madagascar, one of the world's hottest biodiversity hotspots. Studying bushmeat consumption is challenging as many species are protected and researchers must consider the incentives faced by informants. Using interviews with 1154 households in 12 communes in eastern Madagascar, as well as local monitoring data, we investigated the importance of socio-economic variables, taste preference and traditional taboos on consumption of 50 wild and domestic species. The majority of meals contain no animal protein. However, respondents consume a wide range of wild species and 95% of respondents have eaten at least one protected species (and nearly 45% have eaten more than 10). The rural/urban divide and wealth are important predictors of bushmeat consumption, but the magnitude and direction of the effect varies between species. Bushmeat species are not preferred and are considered inferior to fish and domestic animals. Taboos have provided protection to some species, particularly the Endangered Indri, but we present evidence that this taboo is rapidly eroding. By considering a variety of potential influences on consumption in a single study we have improved understanding of who is eating bushmeat and why. Evidence that bushmeat species are not generally preferred meats suggest that projects which increase the availability of domestic meat and fish may have success at reducing demand. We also suggest that enforcement of existing wildlife and firearm laws should be a priority, particularly in areas undergoing rapid social change. The issue of hunting as an important threat to biodiversity in Madagascar is only now being fully recognised. Urgent action is required to ensure that heavily hunted species are adequately protected.

Awareness of traditional beliefs and taboos on pregnancy and lactation in some selected areas of Ashanti region in Ghana: The role of the medical librarian

This paper assesses the extent of internalization of beliefs and taboos regarding pregnancy and lactation in some selected areas in Ashanti Region of Ghana. Copies of a questionnaire were administered on 200 pregnant women, 100 lactating mothers and 50 traditional birth attendants. Responses were analyzed with the SPSS in simple percentages. Some of the findings were: pregnancy and child-birth were shrouded in mystery; the belief in ancestors having influence on the living; children were regarded as reincarnated beings; wearing talisman and charms, drinking herbal concoctions, inoculation with black powder were all forms of protection. Finally, the paper recommends strategies to be employed by medical librarians to collect, process, organize and disseminate information on such beliefs and taboos to health personnel to facilitate improved health care.

Superstitions and nutrition among pregnant women in Nwangele local government area of Imo state, Nigeria

The effects of traditional belief and taboos on the feeding practices and nutritional status of pregnant women in Nwangele Local Government Area Imo state were assessed. Structured and validated questionnaires were used to obtain information on the socio-economic characteristics, food taboos andfeeding practices of the subjects. Anthropometric indices of the subjects were also assessed using weighing scale, height measuring rod and tape. The results of the survey show that 54% of the subjects receive less than N5,000.00 per month;15% of the pregnant women adhere to traditional beliefs and food taboo; 38% of the women were malnourished and 62% were within the range of the expected body weight. Nutrition education should be intensified in health centres and different villages in the local government to help teach pregnant women on healthy food selection and importance of nutrition during pregnancy.

Ten years of adaptive community-governed conservation: evaluating biodiversity protection and poverty alleviation in a West African hippopotamus reserve

SUMMARYCommunity-based natural resource management has been accused of failing on social, economic or ecological grounds. Balanced assessments are rare, however, particularly in West Africa. This paper examines the first 10 years of Ghana's Wechiau Community Hippo Sanctuary using an evaluation framework that considers socioeconomic and ecological outcomes, as well as resilience mechanisms. Building upon traditional taboos against the killing of hippopotami, this initiative has attempted to conserve an imperilled large mammal, protect biodiversity and alleviate abject poverty amidst a bush meat crisis and complex ethnic diversity. Findings show that the Sanctuary has improved local livelihoods by spurring economic diversification and infrastructure development rates 2–8 times higher than in surrounding communities. Simultaneously, threats to biodiversity have subsided, hippopotamus numbers have remained stable and the Sanctuary's riparian habitats now harbour more bird species than comparable areas nearby. Improved social capital, true empowerment, an equitable distribution of benefits, ecological awareness among children and support for the Sanctuary, even amongst community members who were disadvantaged by its creation, speak to good long-term prospects. Risks remain, some of which are beyond the community's control, but evidence of socioecological resilience suggests that capacity exists to buffer risks and foster sustainability. Lessons learnt at Wechiau translate into recommendations for the planning, implementation and evaluation of future community-based conservation initiatives, including greater interdisciplinary integration and the use of adaptive co-management approaches.

The way back

With traditional taboos receding, and the biotechnology and pharmaceutical sectors in flux, some researchers are moving from industry back to academia. Quirin Schiermeier looks at the trade-offs.

The potentials of traditional African cultural practices in mitigating overexploitation of wildlife species and habitat loss: experience of Tanzania

Both colonial and post-colonial conservation policies ignored the potential role of traditional African cultural practices in contributing to conservation goals. Recently, there has been a growing global interest in these practices, although recognition in official conservation policies is still minimal in many countries. This global interest is enthused by the reality that although the use of wild species and their habitats remains the foundation for human survival all over the world, there is a huge risk of losing these species. Factors such as rapid human population increase, inadequate local support for conservation policies, limited strategies for survival among local communities and inadequate capacity of the government to fund law enforcement operations against illegal activities subject the species and habitats to unsustainable use. Traditional cultural practices, among other strategies, have promising potential to enhance sustainable resource use and conservation and, therefore, realize the desire for ecological and social sustainability. Using examples and data drawn from different parts of Tanzania, this paper attempts to uncover some of these potentials on which policy-makers and conservationists can capitalize to augment conservation work. The paper begins by reviewing the ecological impacts of two major conservation problems facing Tanzania – species overexploitation and habitat loss. Then the possible advantages of traditional cultural practices (compared to conventional conservation strategies) are outlined. The traditional practices are presented as more cost-effective, more socially acceptable and having minimal risk of failure. Furthermore, the idea of reviving these practices coincides with the philosophy of co-management approaches, which advocate sharing of power, rights and responsibilities between the state and local resource users. This is based on the idea that local communities constitute voices ‘from the ground’ that should be heard. In showing the efficacy of traditional African cultural practices, the paper specifically focuses on four elements: traditional institutions, taboos, sacred sites and totemic species.

Transformation in self-identity amongst Taiwanese women in late pregnancy: A qualitative study

In a culture transitioning between the traditions of old and modernity, the experience of pregnancy brings added challenges. Pregnant Taiwanese women in large cities are expected to modify their behavior in keeping with long-standing traditions that remain important to their families even if they themselves do not endorse the beliefs. To date, researchers have not examined the processes and the components of the transformation of self-identity during pregnancy under these cultural conditions. To examine the transformation of self during pregnancy by women living in urban Taiwan at a time when modern ideas of women's roles and health care practices co-exist with traditional cultural beliefs on these issues. This was a qualitative study using in-depth, open-ended interviews. Eighteen pregnant women receiving prenatal examinations at clinics located in a medical center in Taipei, Taiwan, participated in this study. Interview responses were analyzed using a phenomenological approach. Cultural and family expectations clearly influenced women's activities and their sense of self during pregnancy. Two themes were central to these experiences. The first, "constructing a new self in the context of cultural values," reflected the need for women to develop a response to the traditional beliefs, taboos, and public advice made very explicit in their lives during pregnancy. The second theme, "building a new body image from the past self," addresses how women's reactions to the traditional beliefs and public advice influenced the ways in which the women viewed themselves as pregnant individuals. Cultural factors and body image issues shape the transformation of self-identity during pregnancy for women living in a modernizing, yet culturally traditional, urban environment in Taiwan. Awareness of the impact that such cultural influences have on the psycho-social experience of pregnancy will help health professionals to better understand and respect the process of self-identity involved in moving toward motherhood, and thereby to provide a woman-centered model of care that is also culturally sensitive.

Taboos and social contracts: Tools for ecosystem management – lessons from the Manambolomaty Lakes RAMSAR site, western Madagascar

Traditional taboos and social contracts played an important role in managing the Manambolomaty RAMSAR site. Taboos are defined as a prohibition imposed by social custom as a protective measure’ and social contracts are – in conservation sense – a common agreement for achieving conservation, sustainable development and development of resources objectives. The Manambolomaty Lakes RAMSAR site, District of Antsalova in western Madagascar, is composed of four lakes (Soamalipo, Befotaka, Ankerika and Antsamaka) surrounded by the Tsimembo deciduous forest. The first three lakes with forest surrounding encompass 14,701 ha and are being managed by two local Associations: FIZAMI (FIkambanana Zanatany Andranobe MIray) and FIFAMA (FIkambanana FAmpandrosoana Mamokatra Ankerika). The associations have used traditional taboos and social conventions to manage their local natural resources by incorporating a GELOSE (GEstion Locale SEcurisée) management system to conserve biological diversity, maintain resource sustainability and socio - economic viability. This site has the highest concentration of the endemic and critically endangered Madagascar fish eagle (Haliaeetus vociferoides), representing 10 % of the global population, and many other species of different faunal groups are also in good conservation status such as Decken’s sifaka (Propithecus deckeni) and Western lesser bamboo lemurs (Hapalemur occidentalis) and Madagascar flying fox (Pteropus rufus). Culturally, the site is known as a unique source of the endemic tree Hazomalania voyroni (Hernandiaceae), which is used by the Sakalava people for constructing coffins, and being buried in a coffin made of this wood is a great honour for the Sakalava people. From Manambolomaty’s Lakes fish yields, estimated at 60 - 100 tons per fishing season, FIZAMI and FIFAMA are one of the few Malagasy Associations with active bank accounts supported by management of their natural resources and associated activities. Their fisheries management system has increased the annual local revenue estimated at more than $ 1,562 US / fisherman per season. The tax of fish sales to wholesale fish buyers forms 56 % of the two local Commune’s budgets. This has made the Community - Based Wetlands Conservation at the Manambolomaty Lakes site well known in the conservation circles within Madagascar and has been modelled vy other organizations and associations. Consequently, the Manambolomaty Lakes site is in the process of being added into the System of Protected Areas of Madagascar (SAPM) (Figure 1).

Food taboos: their origins and purposes

Food taboos are known from virtually all human societies. Most religions declare certain food items fit and others unfit for human consumption. Dietary rules and regulations may govern particular phases of the human life cycle and may be associated with special events such as menstrual period, pregnancy, childbirth, lactation, and – in traditional societies – preparation for the hunt, battle, wedding, funeral, etc. On a comparative basis many food taboos seem to make no sense at all, as to what may be declared unfit by one group may be perfectly acceptable to another. On the other hand, food taboos have a long history and one ought to expect a sound explanation for the existence (and persistence) of certain dietary customs in a given culture. Yet, this is a highly debated view and no single theory may explain why people employ special food taboos. This paper wants to revive interest in food taboo research and attempts a functionalist's explanation. However, to illustrate some of the complexity of possible reasons for food taboo five examples have been chosen, namely traditional food taboos in orthodox Jewish and Hindu societies as well as reports on aspects of dietary restrictions in communities with traditional lifestyles of Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, and Nigeria. An ecological or medical background is apparent for many, including some that are seen as religious or spiritual in origin. On the one hand food taboos can help utilizing a resource more efficiently; on the other food taboos can lead to the protection of a resource. Food taboos, whether scientifically correct or not, are often meant to protect the human individual and the observation, for example, that certain allergies and depression are associated with each other could have led to declaring food items taboo that were identified as causal agents for the allergies. Moreover, any food taboo, acknowledged by a particular group of people as part of its ways, aids in the cohesion of this group, helps that particular group maintain its identity in the face of others, and therefore creates a feeling of "belonging".

The effect of health and nutrition education intervention on women's postpartum beliefs and practices: a randomized controlled trial.

Background'Sitting month' is the Chinese tradition for postpartum customs. Available studies indicate that some of the traditional postpartum practices are potentially harmful for women's health. However, no intervention study aiming at postpartum practices has been performed. In this paper we evaluated the effect of a health and nutrition education intervention, which focused on improving postpartum dietary quality and optimal health behaviors.MethodsThe study design was a randomized controlled trial conducted in both urban and rural area of Hubei between August 2003 and June 2004. A total of 302 women who attended the antenatal clinic during the third trimester with an uncomplicated pregnancy were recruited. Women randomized to the education intervention group in both urban and rural area received two two-hour prenatal education sessions and four postpartum counseling visits. Control group women received usual health care during pregnancy and postpartum period. Women were followed up until 42 days postpartum. Outcome measures were nutrition and health knowledge, dietary behavior, health behavior and health problems during the postpartum period.ResultsWomen in the intervention groups exhibited significantly greater improvement in overall dietary behaviors such as consumption of fruits, vegetables, soybean and soybean products as well as nutrition and health knowledge than those in the control groups. Significantly more women in the intervention groups give up the traditional behavior taboos. The incidence of constipation, leg cramp or joint pain and prolonged lochia rubra was significantly lower in the intervention groups as compared with the control groups.ConclusionThe study shows that health and nutrition education intervention enable the women take away some of the unhealthy traditional postpartum practices and decrease the prevalence of postpartum health problems. The intervention has potential for adaptation and development to large-scale implementation.Trial registration numberklACTRN12607000549426

'You Play Like a Girl!'

Many reasons have been suggested for the lack of female participation in technologically complex digital game play. A previously unconsidered factor is that of cross-gender competition. Rigid gender divisions are the norm in most analog/traditional games and sports. Societal penalties for breaking these norms are severe for both males and females. This article suggests that the virtual certainty of cross-gender competition might be a factor in deterring females from digital game play. The ease of transgressing traditional play taboos in virtual words, however, allows both males and females to explore and possibly transform rigid gender configurations. Policy implications for using play as a way to break down stereotypes and encourage the participation of females are discussed.

The Social and Environmental Factors Underlying Maternal Malnutrition in Rural Bangladesh: Implications for Reproductive Health and Nutrition Programs

Levels of low birth weight (LBW) and maternal malnutrition in rural Bangladesh are among the highest in the world. We surveyed dietary practices among pregnant mothers in a rural area served by a reproductive health and nutrition program. In total, 30 semi-structured interviews and five focus group discussions were carried out, supplemented by participant observations. Despite high levels of awareness of nutritional dietary requirements, half the women reported unchanged or reduced food intake during pregnancy. Dietary taboos and food aversions were widely practiced. Women consistently received the last and smallest food shares during mealtimes. The findings highlight the need to address traditional dietary taboos and preferenaces, and actively target key household decisionmakers, namely, husbands and mothers-in-law, in nutrition behavior change communication.

Social Status, Traditional Food Taboos and Food Security: A Study of Igbo Women in Imo State, Nigeria

A study was conducted to examine adherence to traditional food taboos by women in Imo State, and relate that to social status and food security. Data was collected from 72 women across the three agricultural zones of the State. It was found that age, income and education are some factors affecting adherence to these taboos. This is further evidence of the need to raise women education and income levels as well as providing them employment opportunities. About twenty-five (25) such taboos were identified. These include non-consumption of some crop and livestock products. It was found that these are important sources of calorie, protein, vitamins and minerals. They were also found to be commonly available and within the purchasing power of the women. Prohibiting women from consuming those products denied the potential contribution of those items to women food security denied, apparently for no nutritional reasons. However, enforcement of these taboos is by the women themselves. It is suggested that extension, Nutritionists and dieticians embark on subtle campaigns to reverse these. Journal of Agriculture and Food Sciences Vol. 4 (2) 2006: pp. 139-146

Indigenous Beliefs and Biodiversity Conservation

The paper evaluates the effectiveness of sacred forests, taboos, and totems associated with various animal species in Ghana for biodiversity conservation. The Nkodurom and Pinkwae Sacred Groves have been preserved by local communities through beliefs enforced by a range of restrictions and taboos. In both cases, the groves are the only relatively intact forest in severely degraded landscapes and farmlands. The mollusc Tympanotonus fuscatus, three species of turtles (Green, Olive Ridley, Leatherback), and the Black heron are exploited by many coastal communities in Ghana, but in all cases, the species are protected by some communities through traditional beliefs and taboos. An analysis of the distribution and abundance of these species along the Ghana coast showed much higher numbers in the areas where the species are protected by traditional belief systems. The densities of Tympanotonus fuscatus ranged from 172.3 to 326.2 m-2 at the site where they were protected, compared to 46.7 m-2 where they were exploited, while over 80% of all turtle nest records and 54% of Black Herons sightings occurred at the sites where the species are traditionally protected. The paper discusses the value of traditional strategies as a tool for species and habitat conservation and calls for a global assessment of indigenous conservation systems, and promotion of those systems that have potential to augment biodiversity conservation efforts in Africa.

Traditional Natural Resources Management Practices and Biodiversity Conservation in Ghana: A Review of Local Concepts and Issues on Change and Sustainability

This paper reviews the importance of traditional natural resources management practices in Ghana. It highlights the roles of traditional beliefs, taboos and rituals in the management and conservation of key natural resources in the country. The paper is based on desk studies undertaken as part of anthropological studies conducted in the forest-savanna transitional agroecological zone of Ghana to study the spirituality of forests and conservation. Among the major conclusions of the paper is that although the potential of traditional natural resources management for biodiversity conservation in Ghana is enormous, the sustainability of these practices is seriously threatened. This stems from the rapid changes in the belief systems. Both biophysical and socio-economic factors were found to underlie these changes. The breakdown of traditional beliefs and associated taboos which underpin traditional natural resources management practices were found to be the greatest threat to the sustainability of these practices. The paper recommends that more anthropological research should investigate local perceptions of forest space and landscape, biodiversity conservation and traditional beliefs, and their significance for natural resources management. Such studies would provide valuable insights into the changing values of local people in relation to protected areas such as sacred groves and forest reserves and the management of other natural resources.

Antenatal taboos among Chinese women in Hong Kong

Objective to identify the antenatal taboos commonly practised by pregnant Hong Kong Chinese women; to explore the health beliefs behind these taboos; and to examine how pregnant women perceived and reacted to the cultural tradition. Design general ethnography and in-depth interviews, followed by a quantitative self-reported survey. Setting Antenatal clinic of a university-affiliated hospital in Hong Kong. Participants consecutive samples of 60 women for in-depth interviews, and 832 women for the survey. Measurements an inventory on the adherence and attitude towards antenatal taboos, and the Beck Depression Inventory that measures severity of depression. Findings antenatal taboos were still commonly observed by contemporary Chinese women. Miscarriage, fetus malformation and fetal ill-health were the key cultural fears that drove contemporary Chinese women to observe the traditional taboos. About one-quarter and one-tenth of the women, respectively, felt unhappy and disputed with their families about the taboos. These women had significantly higher levels of depression in late pregnancy and during childbirth. Implications for practice health-care practitioners should be aware of the benefits and risks of traditional antenatal taboos on maternal health. Although some taboos can be socio-morally protective, the tension created by the observation of cultural tradition in modernity may impair maternal psychological well-being. Health-care providers in Western countries should be vigilant of the complex cultural tension faced by migrant Chinese mothers.

Factors influencing non-utilisation of maternity care services in Sagamu, South Western Nigeria

Objective: To determine the factors influencing the utilization of maternity care in the public health facilities in the Sagamu Community. Materials and Methods: With the aid of pre-tested structured interview questionnaires, a comparative cross-sectional study was conducted in Sagamu among expectant mothers patronizing the traditional birth attendants (TBAs) and the public maternity centres, so as to determine the factors responsible for the non-utilization of skilled maternity care and the utilization of health services by the expectant mothers in Sagamu community in September 2002. The process indicator of skilled care at delivery (i.e. percentage of births assisted by skilled attendants) is the United Nations General Assembly recommendation (1999) being used as a benchmark indicator to measure progress towards reducing maternal mortality. Results: Religion, cost of services and distance to the health facilities were found not to be contributory to the non-utilization of health facilities. Rather, socio-cultural beliefs in the TBA services, low educational status, and husband and family decision (gender influence) were found to be strong determinants of the non-utilization of the maternity centres by expectant mothers in this community. Improving the educational status of women, reducing the waiting time at hospitals, improving the quality of care and raising women's status so that they are empowered to make critical health decisions will enhance the use of skilled maternity care and utilization of health facilities by expectant mothers. Conclusion: It is recommended that qualitative research should be conducted in every community to identify traditional beliefs, customs and taboos that may be a deterrent to utilization of skilled maternity care. The information obtained should be used to develop a health communication plan for the community on maternal care. Keywords: maternal mortality, maternity services, traditional birth attendants (TBA) Tropical Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Vol. 23(1) 2006: 48-53

Traditional taboos in biological conservation: the case of Colobus vellerosus at the Boabeng-Fiema Monkey Sanctuary, Central Ghana

Englilish The Boabeng-Fiema Monkey Sanctuary in central Ghana has been called a classic example of successful ‘‘traditional’’ conservation. Local hunting taboos on two species of primates (the ursine black and white colobus and the Campbell's monkey) are thought to date back to the 1830s when a local oracle instructed the villagers to ‘‘care for the monkeys’’. However, the same level of protection is not given to the surrounding forest or other animals in the forest. In light of this situation, we examine the extent to which the traditional taboos on the monkeys complement the biological/ environmental conservation agenda. We come to the conclusion that the monkeys embody the history and foundation myths of the villages and serve as a totemic mechanism to preserve the villagers' social world. French Le "Boabeng-Fiema Monkey Sanctuary'' au centre du Ghana est considéré comme un exemple classique de conservation "traditionnelle'' réussie. Les tabous locaux sur la chasse de deux espèces de primates (le colobus oursin noir et blanc et le singe de Campbell) datent, pense-t-on, des années 1830, lorsqu'un oracle local avait fait savoir aux villageois qu'ils devaient "prendre soin des singes''. Cependant, la protection accordée aux singes ne l'est pas à la forêt environnante ou aux autres espèces animales de la forêt. C'est pourquoi l'article cherche à établir dans quelle mesure les tabous traditionnels à l'égard des singes convergent avec l'agenda de conservation biologique/environnementale. L'article en arrive à la conclusion que les singes incarnent l'histoire et les mythes fondateurs de ces villages et servent de mécanismes totémiques pour préserver l'espace social des villageois.