Traditional Medicine In South Africa Research Articles

Geographical and seasonal phytochemical variation of Artemisia afra Jacq. ex Willd.

Artemisia afra Jacq. ex. Willd. (Asteraceae) is a popular traditional medicine in South Africa, mainly used in the form of an infusion, for the treatment of respiratory ailments. Quality control methods are limited and phytochemical variation for the infusion is not well known. To develop a sensitive quality control method for A. afra infusions by validating a liquid chromatography electrospray ionisation tandem mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS/MS) method and quantitatively comparing six marker compounds in A. afra samples collected from different locations and over a 12-month period. There was a multiple reaction monitoring method optimised and validated, according to ICH and FDA guidelines, to quantify the chemical markers present in infusions. The chemistry differed significantly and interestingly, with an interchangeable trend between chlorogenic acid (CGA) and 4,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid (DCQA) observed in the samples collected monthly, elevated levels of CGA during winter and elevated levels of DCQA during summer. The remaining four markers showed a steady decrease as winter approached and a steady increase as summer approached. The ranges of the six markers were the following: CGA (0.68-14.68 μg/mg), DCQA (0.005-8.110 μg/mg), quercetin (0.01-0.65 μg/mg), luteolin (0.05-1.30 ng/mg), scopoletin (0.10-1.14 μg/mg), scopolin (0.03-1.21 μg/mg). A sensitive LC-ESI-MS/MS method was developed, validated, and used to quantify six marker compounds. The results indicated a large degree of phytochemical variation occurred across all samples tested, which highlights the importance of producing herbal medicine under controlled conditions and the necessity of analytical quality control methods.

A chronicle of alien medicinal plants used as traditional medicine in South Africa, and their status as invasive species

South Africa's colonial past has shaped its environmental history, including introductions of alien plants. Indentured Indian labourers, mainly from Tamil Nadu, that were brought to South Africa in the 1860s, acquired knowledge of Zulu healing practices and plants. This translocation of traditional medical knowledge (mostly Ayurvedic), and the adoption of new plants and traditions of practice, led to these migrants opening up some of the first muthi (traditional medicine) shops in South Africa, and also to importing and incorporating Indian medicinal plants within South African healing traditions. Given this role of traditional medicine in the introduction of alien plant taxa, we gathered data on them from published literature (including market surveys) and from a survey of 77 muthi outlets in three South African cities. There were 301 alien taxa from 76 families, of which 81 taxa were recorded in trade. Sixty-nine of the traded taxa were identified to species, of which 20 have a declared legal status requiring some form of control. Of the 81 traded taxa, 44% were sold in a non-viable form and 29% were seeds or fruit that could be germinated; the remaining 28% were sold as live plants. Seeds of these alien taxa constituted the greatest quantity and most widely traded plant part of the taxa recorded. The survey of muthi outlets generated 36 alien plant taxa, of which 26 were new records in the trade. Plant origins recorded in this survey revealed that 41% of plants were harvested in South Africa, 35% imported from India, and 24% were of unknown origin. The importance of this trade as a pathway for introduction of alien species is discussed.

Fatal pyrrolizidine alkaloid poisoning of infants caused by adulterated Senecio coronatus

Senecio coronatus (known as izonkozonko and ubulibazi in Zulu) is commonly used in traditional medicine in South Africa as purification purgative and enemas for infants during weaning. We show for the first time that this species does not contain pyrrolizidine alkaloids and that reported cases of fatal hepatic sinusoidal obstruction syndrome in infants were caused by wrongly identified Senecio species containing large amounts of retrorsine-N-oxide. A validated ultra performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) method for the detection and quantitation of pyrrolizidine alkaloids is described.

Cissampelos capensis L.f. (Menispermaceae): Review of its medicinal uses, phytochemical and pharmacological properties

Cissampelos capensis L.f. is a perennial climber widely used as a traditional medicine in South Africa. This study was aimed at providing a critical review of medicinal uses, phytochemical and pharmacological properties of C. capensis. Documented information on the pharmacological properties, phytochemistry and medicinal uses of C. capensis was collected from several online sources such as Scopus, Google Scholar, PubMed and Science Direct, and pre-electronic sources such as book chapters, books, journal articles and scientific publications obtained from the university library. This study revealed that leaf, rhizome and root infusions and decoctions of C. capensis are mainly used as a blood purifier, and traditional medicines for respiratory problems, ulcers, sores and wounds, skin and stomach cancers, snakebite, sexually transmitted infections, skin diseases, diabetes and gastrointestinal problems. Phytochemical compounds identified from the species include alkaloids, essential oils, flavonoids, phenolics, saponins and tannins. Pharmacological research revealed that C. capensis extracts and compounds isolated from the species have anthelmintic, antibacterial, antifungal, antidiabetic, antimalarial, hepatotoxicity, spermatozoa and cytotoxicity activities. Documentation of the medicinal uses, phytochemistry and pharmacological properties of C. capensis is vital as this information provides baseline data required for future research and development of health-promoting and pharmaceutical products. There is a need for extensive toxicological evaluations of crude extracts and compounds isolated from the species since C. capensis contains potentially toxic compounds.

Novel kinase platform for the validation of the anti-tubercular activities of Pelargonium sidoides (Geraniaceae)

BackgroundPelargonium sidoides is an important traditional medicine in South Africa with a well-defined history of both traditional and documented use of an aqueous-ethanolic formulation of the roots of P. sidoides (EPs 7630), which is successfully employed for the treatment of respiratory tract infections. There is also historical evidence of use in the treatment of tuberculosis. The aim of this study was to develop a platform of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) kinase enzymes that may be used for the identification of therapeutically relevant ethnobotanical extracts that will allow drug target identification, as well as the subsequent isolation of the active compounds.ResultsMtb kinases, Nucleoside diphosphokinase, Homoserine kinase, Acetate kinase, Glycerol kinase, Thiamine monophosphate kinase, Ribokinase, Aspartokinase and Shikimate kinase were cloned, produced in Escherichia coli and characterized. HPLC-based assays were used to determine the enzyme activities and subsequently the inhibitory potentials of varying concentrations of a P. sidoides extract against the produced enzymes. The enzyme activity assays indicated that these enzymes were active at low ATP concentrations. The 50% inhibitory concentration (IC50) of an aqueous root extract of P. sidoides against the kinases indicated SK has an IC50 of 1.2 μg/ml and GK 1.4 μg/ml. These enzyme targets were further assessed for compound identification from the P. sidoides literature.ConclusionThis study suggests P. sidoides is potentially a source of anti-tubercular compounds and the Mtb kinase platform has significant potential as a tool for the subsequent screening of P. sidoides extracts and plant extracts in general, for compound identification and elaboration by selected extract target inhibitor profiling.

African Traditional Medicine Research between 1998 and 2018: An Informetrics Analysis in South Africa

Traditional knowledge, especially with health-related issues, has become crucial across the world. This can be attributed to the assistance which humans and animals now require. In Africa, traditional healers have strived to offer health remedies through the support of plants with the aim of curing different ailments believed to have been either inherited or caused by attack from spiritual forces. This, to an ordinary person, is difficult to understand; hence the assistance and support of traditional healers play an important role in the treatment of health issues for many people, irrespective of the context. This is commonly referred to as “African traditional medicine” (ATM), being a holistic healthcare system that has attracted numerous researchers. Nonetheless, there is still a paucity of updated, comprehensive collation of research conducted across South Africa. The study that directed this article aimed to assess the publication trends on ATM between 1998 and 2018. The study used interpretive document analysis, where data were harvested from the Web of Science Citation Index Expanded. Findings indicate that 469 documents were retrieved from the database, and the majority of published papers were research articles. A downward trend in terms of the number of publications in 2018 was of concern, considering efforts that were made to encourage research in traditional medicine in South Africa. Results indicate that social sciences contributed the highest number of research publications, while the universities of KwaZulu-Natal, Witwatersrand and Pretoria were the top three contributors with the largest number of publications. The study recommends integrating traditional medicine into the curricula of all South African universities.

A chemometric assessment of essential oil variation of three Salvia species indigenous to South Africa

Indigenous Salvia species from southern Africa are popular traditional medicines for the treatment of a variety of conditions. They produce fragrant volatiles that can be isolated as essential oils. Some of these volatile organic compounds may play a role in the biological activities of the extracts. Three indigenous Salvia species, Salvia africana-lutea, S. lanceolata and S. chamelaeagnea, were selected for this study as they are commonly used in traditional medicine in South Africa, and the essential oils from these species have potential for commercialisation. Although some studies have described the essential oil compositions and some biological activities, only single composite samples were used. The aim of this study was to investigate the intra- and interspecies variation of the essential oils, sampled over a wide geographical area and using a representative sample size, to encourage commercialisation of the essential oil. Essential oils were isolated from individual plants using conventional hydrodistillation of the aerial parts, harvested from several localities.Gas chromatography coupled simultaneously to mass spectrometry/flame ionisation detection (GC-MS/FID) was used to identify and quantify the volatile constituents. The essential oils of S. africana-lutea consisted mainly of terpinene-4-ol + β-caryophyllene (1.4 – 29.0%), T-cadinol (1.2 – 20.0%), α-eudesmol (trace – 23.0%) and β-eudesmol (trace – 26.0%), those of S. lanceolata comprised mainly terpinene-4-ol + β-caryophyllene (4.3 – 31.0%), α-humulene (2.3 – 15.0%), bicyclogermacrene (trace – 37.0%) and spathulenol (trace – 25.0%), while the essential oils of S. chamelaeagnea were characterised by δ-3-carene (trace – 18.0%), limonene (1.6 – 36.0%), viridiflorol (9.8 – 61.0%) and 1,8-cineole (not detected – 11.0%). The compounds identified in the essential oils of the three selected Salvia species have been identified in other Salvia essential oils. To add to the novelty of this study, the superior resolving power of two-dimensional gas chromatography was demonstrated through analysis of selected essential oils. Many additional compounds were identified, and previously co-eluting compounds were clearly separated.Chemometric modelling of the GC-MS data using SIMCA P+ 14 software allowed distinct clustering patterns to be discerned. The unsupervised principal component analysis model revealed separate clusters for the three species, confirming substantial chemical differences between their essential oils. Quantitative, rather than qualitative differences were evident when individual essential oil samples representing the same species, were compared. For each species, two chemically distinct groups were observed and unique marker compounds could be identified. This study has contributed detailed information on the major and minor volatile compounds present in the essential oils of the three Salvia species investigated.

Anti-quorum sensing and antimicrobial activities of South African medicinal plants against uropathogens

Urinary tract infections (UTIs) primarily affect women and have increasingly become a serious health problem globally. These infections are largely attributed to the quorum sensing (QS)-dependent ability of pathogens to form biofilms in the urinary tract. Microbial pathogenicity can be attenuated by disturbing the QS system of bacteria. The aim of the study was to document the antibacterial and anti-quorum sensing (AQS) potential of medicinal plants that are used as traditional medicine in South Africa to treat UTIs. Of the 70 plant extracts prepared from 14 medicinal plants using solvents of different polarities, only 6 displayed noteworthy activity (MIC < 1 mg/mL) against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Serratia marcescens, Escherichia coli and Proteus mirabilis. Extracts of Hydnora africana, Hypoxis hemerocallidea and Prunus africana displayed good antibacterial activity with MIC value of 0.5 mg/mL against S. aureus, but the methanol extracts of Rhoicissus tridentata and Cryptocarya latifolia were highly active against S. marcescens with MICs of 0.13 and 0.25 mg/mL, respectively. When plant extracts were screened for their ability to inhibit the QS-controlled violacein production by Chromobacterium violaceum, only two species (H. africana and C. latifolia) exhibited AQS activity in the qualitative agar well diffusion assay. However, eight extracts inhibited violacein production by 57–71% in the quantitative dilution assay. The ability of uropathogens to form biofilms upon exposure to the plant extracts was subsequently investigated using the crystal violet assay. It was found that the polar extracts of Cenchrus ciliaris and Eucomis autumnalis, Ranunculus multifidus, Vernonia adoensis, Cryptocarya latifolia, Hydnora africana, Rhoicissus tridentata and Hypoxis hemerocallidea, as well as non-polar extracts of Prunus africana and Hypoxis hemerocallidea were able to reduce initial cell attachment of S. aureus, P. mirabilis and S. marcescens by approximately 50%. However, the preformed biofilm was inhibited less than 30% by the extracts. The study revealed that several South African medicinal plants have antibacterial and AQS properties, validating their use in traditional medicines to treat UTIs to some degree, and indicating that they may be a suitable source of anti-pathogenic drugs to treat urinary infections.

Ethnopharmacological use of potassium permanganate in South African traditional medicine.

Potassium permanganate (KMnO4), which is widely available, is often used by traditional health practitioners (THPs) in South Africa (SA) without taking its potentially harmful properties into account. The crystalline KMnO4 salt is sold at traditional medicine markets and shops throughout SA. However, to date, traditional uses of KMnO4 remain undocumented. To describe KMnO4 use by THPs in KwaZulu-Natal, SA. This sub-study is part of a larger study investigating substances used in SA traditional medicine that are collectively known as imikhando in isiZulu - literally translated as 'ore'. THPs (N=201) were interviewed in the local language (isiZulu) by trained interviewers. Information on the reasons for using/not using KMnO4, the source of information on its use and modes of administration were collected. KMnO4 was used as a constituent of traditional medicine by 158 (79%) THPs. Their knowledge of KMnO4 use was acquired predominantly from fellow THPs (n=134; 85%). Reasons for use included skin rash or wounds (n=99, 63%) and to treat aches, pains and swelling (n=74; 47%). The main modes of administration were in the bath (n=94; 60%), orally (n=67; 42%) and in herbal compresses (n=66; 42%). The principal reason of the 43 THPs for not administering KMnO4 was not knowing how to use it (n=29; 71%). This study has identified traditional medicine users at risk of manganese toxicity owing to commonly used sociocultural practices. In particular, reports of oral ingestion and use in enemas are cause for concern. This public health issue needs regulatory measures and education programmes to enlighten the population against possible harm caused by KMnO4 exposure.

The viability of propagules of alien plant species sold for traditional medicine in South Africa

Invasive alien species are routinely moved around the world as horticultural specimens. An additional route through the traditional medicine trade may exist, especially where cultures from different continents coalesce. South African traditional medicine, for example, has a long history of association with its Indian Ayurvedic equivalent via migration of people from the sub-continent as either slaves or indentured labour. This study investigated the occurrence and viability of alien species in South African traditional medicine markets and shops. Forty-two species of alien plants were found, of which 26 species were propagules and 22 were viable. Seven of the viable species are listed as invasive in South Africa. However, all but one of the 22 species that were tested and identified are known to be invasive somewhere in the world. Most of the viable alien species were sold as seeds, seedpods or nuts (64%, n=14 of 22 species) from Indian-owned shops, while mainly tubers, stems and rhizomes were found in African-run markets. Alien plant species moving within this trade route have circumvented all dispersal barriers and may have exerted propagule pressure over at least a century, and should therefore be considered as candidates for monitoring.

True ownership of traditional medicines in South Africa

True ownership of traditional medicines in South Africa

Effects of treatment with Hypoxis hemerocallidea extract on sexual behaviour and reproductive parameters in male rats.

Hypoxis hemerocallidea is used in traditional medicine in South Africa, for the treatment of male reproductive ailments and various chronic illnesses. Despite chronic use, its effects on male reproductive system are unknown. Male Wistar rats were treated orally daily for 28 (n=18) and 56days (n=18). Treatment groups (n=6/group) per treatment period were as follows: untreated control, 150mg/kg and 300mg/kg 70% ethanolic extract of H. hemerocallidea. Sexual behaviour observations were performed on days 17 and 42 of the study. Sperm, biochemical and testicular histopathological studies were carried out. Arousal and libido and serum testosterone increased after 56days of treatment. There was an increase in epididymal sperm count at both treatment doses, with the 300mg/kg dose showing a higher sperm count (p<.05) compared to the 150mg/kg treatment group. The higher 300mg/kg dose also showed an increase (p<.05) in sperm motility after 56days of treatment. Histology showed an increase in germinal layer thickness, consistent with the observed increase in sperm count. Testicular oxidative status improved after 56days of treatment. Results suggest that chronic treatment with H. hemerocallidea may improve male sexual function and fertility parameters and may protect testes from oxidative damage.

Phenolic acid profiles and antioxidant potential of Pelargonium sidoides callus cultures

Pelargonium sidoides DC., an important medicinal plant widely used in traditional medicine in South Africa and Lesotho, has been successfully developed into popular international phytomedicines. In the current study, proliferating P. sidoides callus cultures were established on Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium containing different concentrations and combinations of picloram and thidiazuron (TDZ), and evaluated for their phenolic composition and antioxidant capacity. The concentrations of phenolic acids were determined using ultra performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC–MS/MS). Antioxidant potential of P. sidoides calli was evaluated using 2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl hydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activity, β-carotene/linoleic acid assay and oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) activity. Callus induction was significantly higher in cultures supplemented with different combinations and concentrations of picloram and TDZ compared to the control. Except for gallic acid, picloram/TDZ combinations significantly increased the concentrations of hydroxybenzoic acid derivatives, namely protocatechuic acid, p-hydroxybenzoic acid, vanillic acid and salicylic acid. The concentration of hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives in P. sidoides calli was variable with catechin only detected in calli produced on PGR-free MS medium whereas caffeic acid was not detected in such calli. Picloram (2.0μM) and TDZ (2.5; 5.0μM) stimulated the highest concentrations of caffeic acid, p-coumaric acid and ferulic acid. The highest antioxidant activity based on the DPPH and β-carotene/linoleic acid model systems was obtained for PGR-free-produced calli whereas picloram and TDZ combinatory treatments had a significant effect on the ORAC. The study suggests that P. sidoides calli can be manipulated on a large scale for the production of phenolic acids that exhibit potent antioxidant activity.

Immunomodulatory activity of essential oil from Tetrania riparia (Hochstetter) Codd in murine macrophages

AbstractTetradenia riparia is a plant that is used as a traditional medicine in South Africa to treat inflammatory and infectious diseases. The extracts and essential oil of this plant have shown antioxidant, anticarcinogenic, and antimicrobial properties. Some infections that resolve depend on the specific pathogens and host immune response balance, but only a few studies have screened the immunomodulatory effects of T.riparia. Thus, we studied the immunomodulatory effects of T. riparia essential oil (TrEO) on macrophages. Murine peritoneal macrophages were incubated with 30 ng/ml TrEO for 3, 6, and 24 h. Cytokine expression and production were determined by semiquantitative reverse‐transcriptase polymerase chain reaction and flow cytometry, respectively. TrEO affected cytokine synthesis at all time points, whereas mRNA expression was altered only at 3 and 6 h. Interleukin (IL)‐1β, IL‐12, IL‐17, and interferon‐γ expression were highly induced by TrEO at 3 h. Only IL‐1β expression was elevated at 6 h, and its production gradually increased until 24 h. IL‐2 was produced at high levels in the initial response, and granulocyte monocyte colony stimulating factor and IL‐17 were produced at high levels at 24 h. TrEO inhibited IL‐10. These results indicate that TrEO can modulate proinflammatory cytokines and downregulate IL‐10 and IL‐6. This profile is associated with stimulation of the innate cellular immune response and TH2 cell suppression. The essential oil from T. riparia may be an alternative therapy for carcinogenic, autoimmune, and infectious diseases in which cellular responses are critical for their resolution. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.

New alkaloids from Sceletium tortuosum

Sceletium tortuosum (Mesembryanthemaceae) has been used as antianxiety, anti-stress, and anti-depression in traditional medicine in South Africa. The psych activity associated with S. tortuosum is considered to be due to the presence of alkaloids. Six tricyclic alkaloids, including two new, were isolated from the methanol extract of the aerial parts of S. tortuosum by chromatographic methods. Their structures were determined by spectroscopic means, including 1D- and 2D-NMR and HRESI-MS.

‘Facts are Tenacious’-Interweaving Power Pedagogy in Social Capital Theory to Galvanise Participatory Development: A Critique

The aim of this research was to measure the level of participation amongst African Traditional Health Practitioners at Thembisile Hani local municipality in Mpumalanga and examine whether trust, reciprocity and power affect public participation in the regulation of African Traditional Medicines in South Africa using a social capital theoretical model. The study employed a quantitative methodology by carrying out a survey using a structured questionnaire and data was analysed using a classical linear regression model where Y = a+ bK + cX+ dL + µ, where a is the intercept of the model, b, c, and d represent regression coefficients, and µ is the random error term. However, the focus of the study was on the public participation regression coefficient (c), whose value gives the effect of public participation. The results show that 57% of respondents believed that the constitution gives them the power to influence public decisions; however that citizen power is not being activated whilst 36% of respondents did not believe that they had similar power. One key reason cited by both respondents was that government will always do what they want to do regardless of what citizens think or say. The correlation between power and public participation (p> = 0.004) in this study was statistically significant. The conclusion is that the creation of social capital requires an inclusion of power pedagogy in social capital theory through a proposed CRCT model which creates centres for power interrogation within networks. DOI: 10.5901/mjss.2014.v5n14p492

Commonly used metal and crystalline salts in South African traditional medicine

Ethnopharmacological relevanceTraditional medicines in the form of plants, animals and/or minerals are used by millions of South Africans. There is currently no data regarding the commonly used mineral elements thus the potential benefits or hazards of such products remain unclear. Materials and methodsMetal and crystalline salts were purchased from a rural market (Nongoma, Zululand, South Africa). Information regarding the colloquial name, price and weight was recorded. Energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) was used to quantatively determine the unknown salts. ResultsSix widely available salts were analyzed. Ndonya, as it is colloquially known, refers to two products which look identical to the untrained eye—one is dyed table salt and the other is hexavalent chromium. A further product used medicinally, although not widely available, was identified as iron chromite ore. ConclusionsThe array of substances documented, ranging from benign to carcinogenic, stresses the importance of documenting components used in traditional medicine and confirms the necessity to regulate South Africa traditional medicine. Healthcare workers should be aware of the complexities of using such metal salt.

Structure of Novel Alkaloids from Sceletium tortuosum

Sceletium tortuosum, family Mesembryanthemaceae, is a succulent plant native to South Africa where it is locally known as “Kanna”, “Channa”, or “Kougoed” [1]. The genus Sceletium has been used for anti-anxiety, anti-stress, and anti-depression in traditional medicine in South Africa [2]. Its psychoactive properties are due to the presence of Sceletium alkaloids (mesembrine and mesembrenone are major constituents, Figure) [3, 4]. Mesembrine was shown to have significant serotonin-uptake inhibitory activity [5]. This study reports on the isolation of two new alkaloids along with known compounds from the aerial part of S. tortuosum. Their structures were elucidated through spectroscopic methods, including 1D and 2D NMR experiments and HR MS analysis.

Red Listed medicinal plants of South Africa: Status, trends, and assessment challenges

In 2009, South Africa completed the IUCN Red List assessments of 20,456 indigenous vascular plant taxa. During that process, medicinal plant species (especially those sold in informal muthi markets) were identified so that potential extinction risks posed to these species could be assessed. The present study examines and analyses the recently documented threat statuses of South African ethnomedicinal taxa, including the number of species used, revealing family richness and the degree of endemism, and calculates the Red List Index (RLI) of species survival to measure the relative degree of threat to medicinal species. Approximately 2062 indigenous plant species (10% of the total flora) have been recorded as being used for traditional medicine in South Africa, of which it has been determined that 82 species (0.4% of the total national flora) are threatened with extinction at a national level in the short and medium terms and a further 100 species are of conservation concern (including two species already extinct in the wild). Thirty-two percent of the taxa have been recorded in traditional medicine markets in the provinces of KwaZulu-Natal, Gauteng, Eastern Cape, Mpumalanga and Limpopo. The study also reflects on the challenges associated with Red List evaluations of medicinal species, many of which, based on market reports, are extracted at a seemingly unsustainable rate. In contrast to the majority of species enumerated in the Red List of South African plants, medicinal taxa are often widespread, with large extents of occurrence. Accordingly, the population decline criteria have necessarily been applied to assess threats to their existence, even though accurate figures for numbers of remaining individuals, areas of occupancy, quantities harvested, and regeneration times are often found lacking. Factors leading to susceptibility of plant species to extinction as a result of harvesting pressure are discussed. The current findings reveal a need for greater emphasis on focussed population level research on prioritised medicinal plant species.

The major diterpenoids of the genus Arctopus (Apiaceae) with notes on their chemotaxonomic and medicinal significance

The main diterpenoids in the roots of Arctopus (Apiaceae, tribe Saniculeae) have been identified for the first time. The major compounds are manool, ent-trachyloban-19-oic acid and a kauren-19-oic acid, while methyl-16β-hydroxy-ent-kaur-11-en-19-oate is a minor diterpene. Comparative studies of non-polar extracts by means of LC–MS showed that the isolated main compounds are present in all three species of Arctopus. The study also revealed that the diterpenoid pattern in Arctopus is very similar to that of the genus Alepidea. The tuberous roots of Arctopus and the rhizomes and roots of Alepidea are important traditional medicines in South Africa, used mainly for infections and respiratory ailments. Their efficacy is ascribed to antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory activity. The known biological activities of the isolated diterpenes provide a scientific rationale for the traditional uses. The chemical similarity in diterpenoids also supports the idea that the two genera are closely related, despite their conspicuous morphological differences.