Traditional Masculinity Ideology Research Articles

The Association Between Traditional Masculinity Ideology and Predictors of Military to Civilian Transition Among Veteran Men

Although there is ample evidence that endorsement of traditional masculinity ideology may negatively affect veteran men’s military to civilian transition, it remains unclear which specific facets of traditional masculinity are most likely to impede successful transition to civilian life. To better understand the association between traditional masculinity ideology and veteran transition, this study sought to examine the relationship between five facets of traditional masculinity ideology (restrictive emotionality, avoidance of femininity, toughness, dominance, and self-reliance) and four factors associated with difficult veteran transition (posttraumatic stress disorder [PTSD], depression, perceived social support, and alcohol-related problems) in ( N = 289) veteran men. Results indicate that restrictive emotionality was the most significant contributing facet of traditional masculinity ideology to PTSD, depression, and perceived social support, whereas avoidance of femininity was the masculinity facet most significantly associated with alcohol-related problems. Theoretical and clinical implications are discussed.

Fraternity Membership, Traditional Masculinity Ideologies, and Impersonal Sex: Selection and Socialization Effects.

Fraternity culture perpetuates traditional masculinity ideologies, but little research has considered the process by which men internalize these ideologies. Men may select into fraternities based on preexisting ideologies, or fraternities may have a socializing effect on ideologies. We used two longitudinal datasets to explore selection and socialization effects of fraternity membership on masculinity ideologies (gendered beliefs, gendered traits, and sexual double standard beliefs) and impersonal sex (sexual motives and multiple sex partners) among ethnically and racially diverse college men. Using dataset one (n = 166, M = 18.0 years old fall of first year), we explored the selection and socialization effects of fraternity membership on male role norms, masculine traits, and endorsement of the sexual double standard. Men who more strongly endorsed male role norms about status and the sexual double standard were more likely to join fraternities than other men, indicating selection effects. Using dataset two (n = 256, M = 18.5 years old fall of first year), we explored selection and socialization effects of fraternity membership on sex motives and multiple sex partners. We did not find much evidence for selection or socialization effects on sex motives and multiple sex partners. Our findings may inform intervention efforts for men before and during college.

The Dilemma of Toxic Masculinity in Eastern and Western Societies; With Reference to the Novel “Men in Prison”

This paper will focus on the notion of toxic masculinity that has a lot to do with deforming the male identity figure. I am here really concerned with probing within the need of conforming with the traditional masculinity ideology in the East and the West, and how it hinders males from discovering what it means to be a male. Actually, the scope of research in this paper exceeds one culture to include both the Western and the Eastern cultures, which have proved with evidence to share many attributes. I am also revealing how this masculinity has been misinterpreted over the years to encompass weird attitudes and behaviors as suppressing emotions or masking distress or showing violence as an indicator of power. How the idea of the necessity of being “tough all the time” may affect their mental and psychological wellbeing and what is less than that could stigmatize them for being “feminine” or “weak”. In this paper, I will also try to reveal how great sector of women unintentionally feeds this ego of toxic masculinity to their sons since childhood days. By connecting all these factors to the development of the characters in Victor Surge’s novel “Men in Prison”, we are simply highlighting the psychological dimension and consequences of suppressed men. It is regarded as an unfiltered view of humanity in the early 20th century. The depraving brutality that Serge experienced behind bars is mirroring a society subduing men in various levels. I hopefully seek to break down factors that trap men in a certain framework out of which there is no escape.

Development and validation of a five-item Male Role Norms Inventory using bifactor modeling.

Measures of traditional masculinity ideology (TMI) provide important information related to men’s well-being. However, most TMI measures are too long to be included in large public health, psychological, or medical survey batteries. Drawing on previous bifactor analyses of the Male Role Norms Invent

Traditional Masculinity Ideology and Diagnostic Aversion Predict Symptom Expression in a Community Sample of Distressed Men

Adherence to traditional masculinity ideology (TMI) is associated with a host of negative outcomes, including higher rates of internalizing and externalizing psychopathology. However, relatively less is known about the mechanisms and contexts through which TMI affects the expression of psychological distress. In the current study, men’s aversion to being diagnosed with a mental health disorder was tested as a mediator and moderator to help clarify the relationship between TMI and symptom expression. A community sample of 72 U.S. men experiencing elevated psychological distress completed self-report questionnaires during a single session. Results demonstrated that diagnostic aversion mediated the positive association between TMI and internalizing symptoms. In addition, diagnostic aversion moderated the positive association between TMI and externalizing symptoms, such that this association was stronger among men who demonstrated higher levels of diagnostic aversion. Aversion to mental health diagnosis may be important in understanding how men who adhere to TMI manifest distress across diagnostic categories.

Why don’t “real men” learn languages? Masculinity threat and gender ideology suppress men’s language learning motivation

Large gender disparities in participation still exist across many university subjects and career fields, but few studies have examined factors that account for gender gaps in female-dominated disciplines. We examine one possible cause: threatened masculinity among men who hold traditional gender ideologies. Past research has linked endorsement of traditional gender ideologies to gender-stereotypical occupational choices, and threats to masculinity can lead men to distance themselves from femininity. After confirming that 1,672 undergraduates stereotyped language learning as feminine, we applied a masculinity threat manipulation to investigate 182 men’s disinterest in studying foreign languages, a female-dominated university subject. Men with traditional masculinity ideologies reported less interest in foreign language study and less positive attitudes towards foreign languages following masculinity threat, compared to men whose masculinity was affirmed or who held less traditional masculinity beliefs. Traditional masculine gender roles may lead some men to avoid feminine-typed domains, such as foreign language learning.

Moderation and mediation of the relationships between masculinity ideology and health status.

The purpose of this study was to assess the direct and indirect relationships between the endorsement of traditional masculinity ideology (TMI) and self-reported health status through potential mediating variables of expectations of benefits from health risk behaviors and actual health risk behaviors. In addition, the objective was to test the moderating effect of gender identity, broadly defined (including cisgender and transgender men and women and nonbinary persons). Participants (N = 1233; 34.3% transgender) participated in an online survey, responding to measures of TMI, expectations of benefits, health behaviors, health status, and demographics. Data were analyzed using conditional process modeling. TMI was positively and directly associated with general health status for self-identified men (regardless of their sex assigned at birth), and with mental health for both men and women, but was not associated with physical health for persons of any gender identity. TMI was positively and directly associated with expectations of benefits for both men and women. Expectations of benefits from engaging in health risk behaviors was positively associated with health risk behaviors, and health risk behaviors had a large negative association with health status, for people of all gender identities. TMI may be a general and mental health protective factor for self-identified men, and a mental health protective factor for women, regardless of assigned sex at birth. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Incorporating traditional masculinity ideology into health promotion models: Differences for African American/Black and White men.

Incorporating traditional masculinity ideology into health promotion models: Differences for African American/Black and White men.

An Exploration of the Link Between Masculinity and Endorsement of IPV Myths in American Men.

Current research has established a connection between men's endorsement of traditional masculinity ideology and their perpetration of intimate partner violence (IPV) toward women. However, research has not yet identified the cognitive and affective pathways that link the endorsement of masculinity ideology and men's beliefs about IPV. The current study examined men's fear of intimacy, ambivalent (i.e., hostile and benevolent) sexism, and relationship dominance as potential mediating factors of the relationship between endorsement of traditional masculinity ideology and the acceptance of myths about male-to-female IPV in a community sample of 101 American men. Results supported the hypothesized relationship between men's endorsement of traditional masculinity ideology and their support of myths minimizing the impact of male-to-female IPV or shifting the perceived responsibility for the offenses from the male perpetrators to the female victims. Multiple regression analyses indicated that while men's hostile sexism and a preference for dominance in relationships did partially mediate the proposed relationship, fear of intimacy did not. The sample was largely homogeneous in terms of race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and educational background, although heterogeneous in age. Implications for prevention of IPV include the importance of addressing and challenging the pervasiveness of societal support of IPV myths. Clinical implications include the need for male-centric therapeutic interventions that respect male viewpoints, struggles, and strengths, and that work with, rather than against, a client's sense of masculinity.

Site operatives’ attitudes towards traditional masculinity ideology in the Australian construction industry

There is a widely accepted assumption in the construction literature that the industry is highly masculinised. However, there has been a surprising lack of empirical evidence around workers’ own attitudes towards masculinity in the sector. Addressing this lack of research, a survey to measure construction site operatives’ attitudes towards traditional masculinity ideology was undertaken in Australia using the Male Role Norms Inventory Scale-Short Form (MRNI-SF). It is found that the focus of attitudes towards masculinity in the construction industry may be shifting to reflect trends in the wider population and may be more inclusive and less hegemonic than has been previously argued. It is also found that the focus of masculinity in the construction industry is closely related to the physical and high-risk nature of work and that sexuality and humour may also be an important source of masculine identity. These results are important since they contribute a more nuanced understanding of the dimensions and exact nature of attitudes towards masculinity in the construction industry. It is concluded that future research into the impact of masculinity in areas such as gender diversity, safety and mental health would benefit from a more inclusive theoretical lens which recognises the dynamic nature of masculinity and which highlights the institutional legacies of past hegemonies that have to be challenged to move the industry forward.

Clinical Evaluations of Fathers Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Role Expression

Attention has recently been given to how traditional masculinity ideologies impact men’s well-being in a variety of contexts. We sought to test the impact of masculinity ideology on counseling psychologists’ evaluations of fathers who varied on sexual orientation (heterosexual or gay) and gender role expression (traditional or nontraditional masculinity). One hundred and thirty-three counseling psychologists were randomly assigned to evaluate one of four experimentally manipulated vignettes regarding an adoptive father in distress on measures of personal reactions, parenting skills, and adjustment. We hypothesized that counseling psychologists would give poorer ratings to fathers who violated traditional masculinity ideology in sexual orientation or gender role expression, with masculinity ideology as a moderator. MANCOVA analysis showed differences in the way participants evaluated fathers, but not in the ways we predicted based on gender role strain theory. A follow-up descriptive discriminant analysis revealed that gay fathers received more favorable therapist personal reactions, and gender nontraditional fathers were rated as having more favorable parenting skills and less favorable overall adjustment. In general, the participants’ endorsement of masculinity ideology was low and had little variability which limited the scope of the moderation analysis. Findings are discussed in relation to masculinity and gender role studies.

How Does Traditional Masculinity Relate to Men and Women’s Problematic Pornography Viewing?

Problematic pornography viewing (PPV) is a growing concern. Based on a masculine gender role strain framework, individuals endorsing traditional masculinity ideology (TMI) may be especially drawn to pornography. However, relatively few studies have explored how TMI is related to PPV. Furthermore, no known studies have explored how these connections differ in men and women. To address these gaps, we conducted a large survey of 310 men and 469 women in the United States assessing multiple PPV and TMI dimensions. A bifactor structural equation model was used to regress PPV domains onto global and specific TMI factors. Invariance testing further examined the moderating effects of participants’ gender in the model. Results indicated that global TMI was unrelated to men’s PPV. However, men’s dominance ideologies predicted greater functional problems and excessive pornography use. Men’s restrictive emotionality and heterosexist ideologies predicted control difficulties with pornography use and using pornography to escape negative emotions. Additionally, men’s avoidance of femininity ideology predicted excessive pornography use and control difficulties. For women, only global TMI was associated with functional problems. Invariance testing suggested the observed gender differences were not due to underlying discrepancies in the measurement of TMI or PPV. Clinical interventions for PPV that incorporate gender role themes are recommended.

Supplemental Material for Incorporating Traditional Masculinity Ideology Into Health Promotion Models: Differences for African American/Black and White Men

Supplemental Material for Incorporating Traditional Masculinity Ideology Into Health Promotion Models: Differences for African American/Black and White Men

Further examination of the factor structure of the Male Role Norms Inventory-Short Form (MRNI-SF): Measurement considerations for women, men of color, and gay men.

Using multigroup structural equation modeling in a large sample of online-survey respondents (N = 6,744), the present study examined the reliability and dimensionality of the Male Role Norms Inventory-Short Form (MRNI-SF), a popular measurement of traditional masculinity ideology (TMI), and also tested measurement invariance between individuals that do and do not fit the White heterosexual male TMI reference group. Results indicated that (a) it is appropriate to model the MRNI-SF using either a bifactor or unidimensional model but not a second-order model, (b) the raw MRNI-SF total score is a suitable measure of the general TMI construct, (c) the raw self-reliance through mechanical skills and negativity toward sexual minorities subscale scores may be appropriate measures of their respective specific factors (akin to subscale factors), and (d) SEM or ipsatizing procedures should be used to model the 5 other specific factors, given the insufficient model-based reliability of their raw subscale scores. When comparing men to women, White men to Black and Asian men, and gay men to heterosexual men, the MRNI-SF demonstrated configural invariance and at least partial metric invariance (i.e., measured similar constructs). However, scalar and residuals invariance were only supported for Asian men compared to White men. Taken together, these findings suggest that a general TMI factor of the MRNI-SF is best represented by a bifactor model, even in individuals that do not fit the White heterosexual male TMI reference group, but the instrument may be tapping somewhat different constructs in women, Black men, and gay men. (PsycINFO Database Record

Posttraumatic stress mediates traditional masculinity ideology and romantic relationship satisfaction in veteran men.

Posttraumatic stress mediates traditional masculinity ideology and romantic relationship satisfaction in veteran men.

Confirmatory factor analytic investigation of variance composition, gender invariance, and validity of the Male Role Norms Inventory-Adolescent-revised (MRNI-A-r).

Confirmatory factor analysis of responses to the Male Role Norms Inventory-Adolescent-revised (MRNI-A-r) from 384 middle school students (163 boys, 221 girls) indicated that the best fit to the data was a bifactor model incorporating the hypothesized 3-factor structure while explicitly modeling an additional, general factor. Specifically, each item-level indicator loaded simultaneously on 2 factors: a general traditional masculinity ideology factor and a specific factor corresponding to 1 of the 3 hypothesized masculine norms for adolescents: Emotionally Detached Dominance, Toughness, and Avoidance of Femininity. Invariance testing across gender supported metric invariance for the general factor only. Although item loadings on the general factor were similar across boys and girls, the specific factor loadings varied substantially, with many becoming nonsignificant in the presence of the general factor for girls. A structural regression analysis predicting latent variables of the Meanings of Adolescent Masculinity Scale (MAMS), the Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale, and the Discipline, School Difficulties, and Positive Behavior Scale (DSDPBS) indicated that the general factor was a strong predictor of MAMS for both genders and DSDPBS for girls. Findings indicate that the MRNI-A-r general factor is a valid and reliable indicator of overall internalization of traditional masculinity ideology in adolescents; however, the specific factors may have different meanings for boys as compared with girls and lack validity in the presence of the general factor. These findings are consistent with a developmental perspective of gender ideology that views adolescence as a time when a differentiated cognitive schema of masculine norms is beginning to develop. (PsycINFO Database Record

Construct validity evidence for the Male Role Norms Inventory-Short Form: A structural equation modeling approach using the bifactor model.

The construct validity of the Male Role Norms Inventory-Short Form (MRNI-SF) was assessed using a latent variable approach implemented with structural equation modeling (SEM). The MRNI-SF was specified as having a bifactor structure, and validation scales were also specified as latent variables. The latent variable approach had the advantages of separating effects of general and specific factors and controlling for some sources of measurement error. Data (N = 484) were from a diverse sample (38.8% men of color, 22.3% men of diverse sexualities) of community-dwelling and college men who responded to an online survey. The construct validity of the MRNI-SF General Traditional Masculinity Ideology factor was supported for all 4 of the proposed latent correlations with: (a) Male Role Attitudes Scale; (b) general factor of Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory-46; (c) higher-order factor of Gender Role Conflict Scale; and (d) Personal Attributes Questionnaire-Masculinity Scale. Significant correlations with relevant other latent factors provided concurrent validity evidence for the MRNI-SF specific factors of Negativity toward Sexual Minorities, Importance of Sex, Restrictive Emotionality, and Toughness, with all 8 of the hypothesized relationships supported. However, 3 relationships concerning Dominance were not supported. (The construct validity of the remaining 2 MRNI-SF specific factors-Avoidance of Femininity and Self-Reliance through Mechanical Skills was not assessed.) Comparisons were made, and meaningful differences noted, between the latent correlations emphasized in this study and their raw variable counterparts. Results are discussed in terms of the advantages of an SEM approach and the unique characteristics of the bifactor model. (PsycINFO Database Record

Manly to the core: Measuring men's implicit masculine self-concept via the Semantic Misattribution Procedure

Masculine self-concept refers to a man's psychological sense of being male. In this study, we used the Semantic Misattribution Procedure to assess men's implicit masculine self-concept. As expected, implicit masculine self-concept was not associated with social desirability, but was positively associated with several gender-relevant outcomes, including conformity to masculine norms, endorsement of traditional masculinity ideology, hostile sexism, and benevolent sexism. We also found support for a mediation model in which explicit masculine self-concept mediated the impact of implicit masculine self-concept on these outcomes. These results provide evidence for the importance of implicit masculine self-concept when exploring gender-relevant outcomes.

The WiseGuyz Program: Sexual Health Education as a Pathway to Supporting Changes in Endorsement of Traditional Masculinity Ideologies

Given the growing interest in the impacts of gender ideology on adolescent boys’ well-being, there is a call for programs to support the development of healthy and positive constructs of masculinity. The WiseGuyz program at the Calgary Sexual Health Centre is a sexual health and healthy relationship program addressing the need for interventions that promote positive and healthy constructs of masculinity identified in the literature. Using the Male Role Norms Inventory Scale–Adolescent–revised (MRNI-A-r) standardized scale and focus groups, data were gathered from 52 adolescent boys enrolled in the WiseGuyz program. Results suggest that participation in the WiseGuyz program lessens boys’ endorsement of traditional masculinity ideologies, as indicated by changes in the MRNI-A-r and focus group data.

‘BIG, HARD and UP!’ A healthy creed for men to live by?

The social construction of reality is influenced extensively by the mass media. Commercialised images of masculinity, including discourses to interpret it, are continuously reflected and/or created by sources of mass media, in a myriad of ways. These images are subjectively loaded, but still effectively communicate to us, and even entice and persuade us. It furthermore wields extensive power over men – especially over their self-images, passions, and egos. In this article, dominating images and discourses concerning manhood and male identity – particularly those displayed in men’s health magazines (MHM) – were critically examined. This was done through a thematic analysis of 123 issues (spanning more than 10 years) of MHM cover pages. The investigation showed that MHM is infused with traditional masculine ideology. Moreover, MHM fails to confront discourses that endorse hegemonic masculinity, for the sake of holistic health. It was suggested that a sober, precautionary, health strategy should challenge men to critically engage with MHM’s reigning creed: ‘big, hard and up’. This creed incites a utilitarian view of sexuality within a culture of performance-driven masculinity, which subsequently fuels anxieties that can lead to unhealthy issues, such as body image dissatisfaction. From a pastoral care perspective, it was asserted that (specifically) Christian men need to search for alternative ways to instigate their capacity to experience and facilitate authentic intimacy, in order to work toward the social construction of more balanced and healthy discourses on male identity. Keywords:Masculinity/Masculinities; Men's Health; Male Sexuality; Embodiment; Pastoral Care Perspective