Traditional Masculinity Ideology Research Articles

Energy Drink Use and Its Relationship to Masculinity, Jock Identity, and Fraternity Membership Among Men

The present study examined whether previous findings linking masculinity constructs and health behaviors applied to a relatively recent health risk behavior for men, the consumption of energy drinks. In addition, it also examined whether self-identifying as a jock and being a member of a fraternity would moderate the relationships between masculinity constructs and energy drink consumption. A total of 589 men completed measures of three masculinity constructs (endorsement of traditional masculinity ideology, conformity to masculine norms, and gender role conflict), energy drink consumption, jock identity, and fraternity membership, in addition to a demographic questionnaire. Age, endorsement of traditional masculinity ideology, and conforming to the masculine norms of risk taking and primacy of work were identified to be significant predictors of energy drink consumption. Furthermore, jock identity moderated the relationship between the endorsement of traditional masculinity ideology and energy drink consumption whereas fraternity membership moderated the relationship between conforming to the masculine norm of violence and energy drink consumption. Limitations, implications, and potential future directions are discussed.

The Theory of Male Reference Group Identity Dependence: Roles of Social Desirability, Masculinity Ideology, and Collective Identity

Data from 118 college men from the southeastern United States (U.S.) were analyzed using zero-order and partial correlations to test male reference group identity dependence theory’s propositions regarding the relations of male reference group identity attitudes (i.e., no reference group, reference group dependent, reference group nondependent similarity, and reference group nondependent diversity) with traditional masculinity ideology and dimensions of men’s gender-based collective identity (i.e., affirmative evaluation of collective identity, importance of collective identity). Male reference group identity attitudes yielded theoretically-consistent relations with the affirmative evaluation and importance of collective identity. Specifically, the no reference group attitudes were correlated negatively whereas nondependent diversity attitudes were correlated positively with affirmative evaluation; the group dependent attitudes were correlated positively with importance of collective identity; and the nondependent similarity attitudes were correlated positively with both affirmative evaluation of collective identity and the importance of collective identity. This pattern reveals the differential salience of collective identity dimensions in male reference group identity attitudes, suggesting that group dependent attitudes reflect importance of collective identity without an evaluation valence, nondependent diversity attitudes reflect affirmative evaluation whereas the no reference group attitudes reflect nonaffirmative evaluation of collective identity, and nondependent similarity attitudes involve both affirmative evaluation and importance of collective identity. Additional findings added to prior data suggesting reevaluation of the posited role of traditional masculinity ideology in male reference group identity theory. The pattern of findings was not changed by controlling for self-deceptive enhancement and impression management dimensions of social desirability.

Male Partner Selectivity, Romantic Confidence, and Media Depictions of Partner Scarcity

An experiment was conducted to explore the effects of exposure to partner scarcity or abundance messages on men's partner selectivity, romantic confidence, and self-assessed attractiveness. Undergraduate male participants watched a soap opera narrative featuring either two men competing over one potential female partner (partner scarcity) or two women competing over one potential male partner (partner abundance). Relative to control subjects, watching either narrative reduced romantic confidence. Experimental condition also affected partner selectivity and self-assessed attractiveness, though both effects were moderated by endorsement of traditional masculine ideology. Viewing the abundance narrative resulted in greater selectivity and self-assessed attractiveness for men high in endorsement of traditional masculinity but diminished selectivity and self-assessed attractiveness for men low in endorsement of traditional masculine identity.

Qualitative inquiry: perceptions of sexuality by African Americans experiencing haemodialysis

To explore the influence of the haemodialysis regimen on African Americans' perceptions of sexuality. Sexuality is defined as the quality of humans as males or females. Sexuality concerns are commonly reported for individuals receiving haemodialysis; yet, sexuality-related research for this population has been limited to a focus on altered physical sexuality characteristics. Qualitative descriptive study. This qualitative descriptive study used a middle-range model derived from Roy's adaptation model to explore a holistic viewpoint of African Americans' perceptions of physical sexuality, personal sexuality identity, family/social roles, and intimate/personal relationships since being on dialysis. Data were collected over a 9-month period in 2008-2009. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 19 African American men (N = 12) and women (N = 7) who were receiving haemodialysis treatment (mean age = 49·95 years). Perceptions of diminished sexuality were most associated with altered relationships, family and social roles for most participants, and were suggested to negatively influence adaptive processes. Perceptions of personal sexuality identity in male participants were found to be greatly influenced by endorsement of traditional masculinity ideology. In contrast, female participants' perceptions of sexuality were found to be influenced by multiple meanings of their identity as Black women. These findings suggest that diminished perceptions of sexuality may negatively influence adaptive processes for patients receiving chronic treatment such as dialysis. In addition, findings support further research and the development of instruments to assess sexuality from a more holistic viewpoint.

Does the Endorsement of Traditional Masculinity Ideology Moderate the Relationship between Exposure to Violent Video Games and Aggression?

Previous research has found a link between exposure to violent videogames and aggression. The current study investigated whether the endorsement of traditional masculinity ideology moderates this relationship in college men. The sample, 168 men, filled out a demographic questionnaire, the Male Role Norms Inventory-Revised, an adaptation of the Exposure to Violent Videogames Measure, and the Aggression Questionnaire. Exposure to violent videogames was, as expected, correlated with aggression. Endorsement of traditional masculinity ideology was also correlated with aggression. The endorsement of traditional masculinity ideology was found to moderate the relationship between exposure to violent videogames and aggression. High endorsement increased the positive linear relationship between exposure and aggression, whereas low endorsement removed this relationship.

"Making Muscle Junkies": Investigating Traditional Masculine Ideology, Body Image Discrepancy, and the Pursuit of Muscularity in Adolescent Males

In this paper, we investigated the relationship between traditional masculine ideology, body image discrepancy, self-esteem, and the pursuit of muscularity in a sample of school going boys. Constructs were measured using the Traditional Masculine Ideology Scale, Lynch and Zellner’s Body Figure Drawings (1999), Rosenberg’s Self-Esteem Inventory, and the Drive for Muscularity Scale. Questionnaires were administered to 508 boys, from Grades 10, 11, and 12, at a public single-sex high school in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Analysis revealed significant positive correlations between traditional masculine ideology, the pursuit for muscularity, and body image discrepancy. Indian school boys experienced body image discrepancy more severely than their Black and White counterparts in the sample. Further, there was a significant use of muscle supplements and steroids by school going boys.

The Relation of Masculinity and Help-Seeking Style with the Academic Help-Seeking Behavior of College Men

The present study examined how the endorsement of traditional masculinity ideology, conformity to masculine norms, and help seeking style are related to the avoidance of academic help seeking by college men in psychology courses. One hundred seventy eight undergraduate males participated in the study. Results indicated that greater conformity to masculine norms was significantly associated with avoidance of academic help seeking above and beyond the contribution of demographics, amount of course work taken, and propensity for using the executive help-seeking style. The endorsement of aspects of traditional masculinity ideology was associated with avoidance of help seeking. These results indicate that masculinity variables are associated with men's avoidance of help seeking in academic situations similar to their associations with men's avoidance of help seeking in other areas. Two main aspects of masculinity tapped by both measures are most strongly associated with the avoidance of help seeking when struggling academically: self-reliance and dominance.

Research in the psychology of men and masculinity using the gender role strain paradigm as a framework.

This article introduces the specialty area of the psychology of men and masculinity to the broader community of American psychologists, focusing on research conducted using the gender role strain paradigm. The review covers the rationale for and aims of the psychology of men and masculinity and the gender role strain paradigm. It provides an extensive discussion of masculinity ideologies--the core construct in the strain paradigm--including the definition of masculinity ideology and considerations of masculinity ideology versus masculinity ideologies, traditional masculinity ideology, the measurement of masculinity ideologies, the Male Role Norms Inventory-Revised, women's and adolescent's masculinity ideologies, and conformity to masculine norms. It then takes up the 3 types of masculine gender role strain (discrepancy, dysfunction, and trauma) and the normative male alexithymia hypothesis. Finally, it considers future research directions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved).

Justifications and Comparisons in the Division of Household Labor: The Relevance of Gender Ideology

This study tests the direct relevance of justifications and social comparisons (predictors of perceptions of fairness) on different types of household labour distribution, and the importance of masculinity ideology and neosexism on these variables. The participants were heterosexual dual-earner couples. Our results showed that both men and women use more justifications when their housework distribution is not equal, but only women use social comparisons associated with the ways of distributing domestic work. In addition, we observe that, in both men and women, justifications are related to a traditional masculine ideology, but a different model appears in relation to comparisons which are associated with neosexism in men and with traditional masculine ideology in women. Implications and suggestions for future research are discussed.

Factors Influencing Masculinity Ideology among Latino Men

This research study assessed the factors that affect Latino men's endorsement of hypermasculinity, an exaggerated form of traditional masculinity ideology. One hundred and one Latino men from two urban universities and surrounding neighborhoods completed measures that assessed ethnic identity, hypermasculinity, sex-role egalitarianism perceived in the home, and reference group identity dependence. It was hypothesized that hypermasculinity would be linked to traditional sex-roles taught in the home, male identity, and ethnic identity. The results indicate that hypermasculinity was associated with high ethnic identity and a male identity characterized by a lack of appreciation of differences among males.

Negotiating dominant masculinity ideology: strategies used by gay, bisexual and questioning male adolescents.

In the context of a U.S. dominant masculinity ideology, which devalues men who are not heterosexually identified, many gay, bisexual and questioning (GBQ) adolescent males must develop their own affirming and health-promoting sense of masculinity. In order to promote the well-being of GBQ young men, exploration of their reactions and responses to dominant images of masculinity is needed. We qualitatively analyzed interviews with 39 GBQ African American, Latino, and European American male adolescents (15-23years old). Participants reported a range of responses to traditional masculinity ideologies, most of which centered on balancing presentations of masculine and feminine characteristics. Negotiation strategies served a variety of functions, including avoiding anti-gay violence, living up to expected images of masculinity, and creating unique images of personhood free of gender role expectations. These data suggest a complex picture of GBQ male adolescents' management of masculinity expectations and serve as a basis for culturally and developmentally specific HIV prevention programs.

The Efficacy of Alexithymia Reduction Treatment: A Pilot Study

The aim of this pilot research project was to assess the efficacy of Alexithymia Reduction Treatment (ART), a six-session manualized psychoeducational group intervention. A quasi-experimental design was used. The six participants in the Treatment Group were recruited at a university-based counseling center and the seven participants in the Treatment as Usual group were from a hospital-based day treatment program. Participants in the Treatment Group demonstrated significant reductions in normative male alexithymia and the endorsement of traditional masculinity ideology from pre-test to post-test. The Treatment as Usual group did not demonstrate significant reductions in these variables pre-test to post-test. Neither group showed significant change in attitudes toward seeking professional psychological help.

The Relationships between Masculinity Variables, Health Risk Behaviors and Attitudes toward Seeking Psychological Help

The purpose of this study was to directly compare traditional masculinity ideology, conformity to masculine norms, and gender role conflict to determine to what degree these masculinity variables are associated with self-reported risky health behaviors and negative attitudes toward seeking psychological help. Based on correlational analyses of the responses of 137 college men, higher gender role conflict was related to greater risky health behaviors, and higher levels of all three masculinity variables were related to more negative attitudes toward seeking psychological help. Using regression analyses, higher gender role conflict was a unique predictor of greater health risk behaviors, but traditional masculinity ideology was, unexpectedly, inversely associated with risky health behaviors. Conformity to masculine norms was a unique predictor of negative attitudes toward seeking psychological help. The limitations resulting from the overlap of the masculinity measures, the psychometric properties of the health risks measure, and the use of a college sample, as well as implications for practice and suggestions for future research, are discussed.

“Making a Perfect Man”: Traditional Masculine Ideology and Perfectionism among Adolescent Boys

We examine adolescent males' subscription to traditional masculine norms, and its effect on acquisition of perfectionist tendencies. These constructs were measured by the Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (1990) and the Traditional Masculine Ideology Scale (TMI). The masculinity and perfectionism constructs are also considered in the light of boys' relationships with their fathers. Questionnaires were administered to 141 Grades 10, 11, and 12 boys at a public single-sex high school. Analysis revealed positive and significant correlations between TMI and Total Perfectionism, as well as with TMI and the ‘Concern over Mistakes’, ‘Parental Expectations’ and ‘Personal Standards’ subscales. These findings are discussed in terms of the construction of male identity in modernity.

Traditional Masculinity and African American Men's Health-Related Attitudes and Behaviors

This study investigates aspects of masculinity that may relate to African American men's health-related attitudes and behaviors. Two hundred and eight men completed measures of traditional masculinity ideology and health-related attitudes and behaviors. Results indicated that after accounting for participants' age, education, income, and employment status, traditional masculinity norms of self-reliance and aggression were associated with behaviors conducive to personal wellness and certain health-related psychological tendencies. Restrictive emotionality was associated with anxiety about one's health and the belief that one's health status is outside of one's personal control. Implications of the findings for the health-related attitudes and behaviors of African American men are discussed.

"Impact of gender role conflict, traditional masculinity ideology, alexithymia, and age on men's attitudes toward psychological help seeking": Erratum.

"Impact of gender role conflict, traditional masculinity ideology, alexithymia, and age on men's attitudes toward psychological help seeking": Erratum.

Initial Validation of the Male Role Norms Inventory-Revised (MRNI-R)

This article reports the results of the initial evaluation of the revised version of the Male Role Norms Inventory (MRNI-R). The MRNI-R assesses only traditional male role norms (thus dropping the Non-Traditional Attitudes subscale of the original MRNI), revises the labeling and content of the Self-Reliance subscale, drops the Achievement/Status subscale and substitutes the Dominance subscale, and updates the language throughout the instrument. The MRNI-R was administered to 170 undergraduate and graduate students (38 men and 132 women). One hundred and seven initial items were reduced to fifty-three items following iterative analyses of item-to-subscale correlations. Improved reliabilities were found for the MRNI-R and its subscales, with Cronbach alphas ranging from .73 to .96. Significant sex and racial/ethnic differences were found with respect to the endorsement of traditional masculinity ideology, providing support for its construct validity.

Masculinity Ideology, Male Identity, and Romantic Relationship Quality Among Heterosexual and Gay Men

This research assessed factors that may affect men’s romantic relationships. One hundred men (50 heterosexual and 50 gay) in the Northeast US completed measures that assessed masculinity ideology, male identity, and relationship quality. We examined whether the quality of heterosexual men’s romantic relationships differ from that of romantic relationships among gay men, and whether masculinity ideology and male identity are related to the quality of heterosexual and same-sex romantic relationships. Results indicated no differences between heterosexual and gay men in the perceived quality of romantic relationships. However, in both gay and heterosexual men, traditional masculinity ideology and a male identity characterized by a lack of psychological relatedness to other men were associated with lower quality romantic relationships.

Breasts Are for Men: Media, Masculinity Ideologies, and Men’s Beliefs About Women’s Bodies

Although masculinity ideology (MI) has been shown to predict men’s sexual risk-taking, less is known about MI’s contribution to men’s beliefs about women and their sexual bodies. Accordingly, we examined associations between masculine ideology, media consumption, and men’s attitudes about women’s reproductive body functions among a sample of 656 undergraduate men. Participants completed measures assessing their endorsement of traditional gender ideologies, their levels of media exposure and engagement, and their attitudes toward childbirth and breastfeeding. It was hypothesized that media use would contribute to traditional MI, and that traditional MI would contribute to negative views about breastfeeding and childbirth. Results supported these individual connections, but not a mediated model. Discussion focuses on implications of these findings for women’s lives.

Masculinity Ideology and Forgiveness of Racial Discrimination among African American Men: Direct and Interactive Relationships

Forgiveness research has focused almost exclusively on interpersonal transgressions committed in close relationships. Consequently, less is known about factors informing forgiveness of non-intimate actors. The current study addresses these gaps by investigating correlates of forgiveness over racial discrimination among African American men (N = 171). Specifically, we explore relationships between the endorsement of traditional masculine ideology (e.g., restrictive emotionality), overall forgiveness, forgiveness with positive affect, and forgiveness with the absence of negative affect. Links between personality, religiosity, social support, discrimination experiences, and these forms of forgiveness also are examined. Restrictive emotionality emerged as a barrier to forgiveness of discrimination. However, the relationship between restrictive emotionality and forgiveness was moderated by age, socioeconomic status, personality, and religious coping disposition.