Traditional Masculine Norms Research Articles

Masculinity Contest Culture in German Startups: A Quantitative Study on Prevalence

It is frequently reported that the environments within tech startups are characterized by the celebration of masculine norms and competitive behaviors, which ultimately affect an inclusive work environment and employee well-being. However, there is a lack of sound empirical evidence, including startups in other industries, to substantiate these claims. This study investigates the prevalence of masculinity contest culture (MCC) within German startups through a quantitative analysis involving 101 participants. The Masculinity Contest Culture scale was employed to assess the manifestations of traditional masculine norms related to emotional resilience, physical superiority, workaholism, and aggressive competitiveness. Results show an overall low prevalence of MCC, with no significant differences based on gender perceptions, contradicting previous studies suggesting entrenched masculinity in startups. “Put Work First” emerged as the most prominent dimension, reflecting a persistent culture of work prioritization. This study challenges the stereotype of startup environments as bastions of toxic masculinity. The findings underscore the need for further research to understand cultural factors influencing startup ecosystems and to foster healthier work environments. Future studies should expand sample sizes to validate these findings and enhance generalizability.

Guns, Thorns, and Zeal: Popular Depictions of a Kombative Christ

What are the political, gender, and theological implications at stake when associating Jesus with modern combat and righteous violence? Jesus is rendered in combative form across media—i.e., live-action films and shorts, animated television, sketch comedy, graphic novels, and video games. This rendition occurs at a confluence of meaning, most immediately for the sake of generating comedy through juxtaposition (in this case, rendering the meek with a sword) and/or reaffirming Jesus’ prominent cultural value through an association with other popularly mediatized entities. Beyond these initial layers of significance, however, I argue that Jesus becomes associated with violence and brutality for the sake of de/legitimizing politically conservative ideologies with respect to Christianity and American exceptionalism, redeeming the crisis of “domesticated masculinity” and fortifying traditional masculine norms, and theologically reinstituting popular paradigms of low Christology. Ideological “manhood” remains traced to one’s ability to perform traditional gender roles (i.e., family provider, community protector, and father/procreator). To capture the discrepancy that Jesus of Nazareth, as presented in canonical gospels, largely concerns none of these roles, I analyze the hypermasculine Christ, and the various weapons he employs, as part of a popular genealogy of Western value systems and discourse. Though in this article I reference some examples of non-American media, I reserve my analysis and commentary for the stakes and implications of what it means for U.S. Americans to produce and consume such content. In short, I submit that popular America idolizes itself in the form—one amidst many—of a naïve, combative, and boorish Christ: an arrogant and, at times, narcissistic man with delusional views of the world made dangerous through invasive power and authority. Western entertainment has deemed the United States (through its fictional stand-ins) as morally failing yet still chosen. Within this logic, American Christians need not reform their ways as long as they cultivate evidence of their exceptionalism.

Cultivating a culture of intervention: Bystander programs and the prevention of sexual violence

This systematic review examines the effectiveness of bystander intervention programs in preventing sexual violence, with a focus on the role of masculinity and cultural factors. The review synthesizes findings from six studies, employing a mixed-methods approach to analyze quantitative and qualitative data. The results highlight the significance of bystander intervention in preventing sexual violence, particularly among young people. The studies demonstrate that programs targeting men and boys, addressing traditional masculinity norms, and promoting empathy and prosocial behavior are effective in reducing sexual violence. Cultural factors, such as social norms and community engagement, also play a crucial role in shaping bystander behavior. The review concludes that bystander intervention programs have the potential to create a culture of empathy and action, but require careful consideration of cultural context and nuances. The findings have implications for the development of effective prevention strategies and highlight the need for further research in this area. By understanding the complexities of bystander behavior, we can work towards creating safer and more supportive communities for all individuals.

Exploring the Social Exchange of Manhood and Masculine Norms Among Black Heterosexual College Men

ABSTRACT Traditional masculine norms state men are tough, protective, and sexually assertive. Young Black men must weigh the rewards and costs of adhering to or deviating from these norms within the college environment, as their choices can be detrimental to their health. Using the ecological-exchange framework, we examined adherence to or deviation from traditional masculine norms from focus groups with 13 Black heterosexual men at two Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) and one Minority-Serving Institution. Participants formed their masculinity through experiences with male role models and mothers but felt conflicted in their need to adhere to or deviate from norms. This reflects the processes men go through to develop their masculinity and highlights needed interventions focused on cultivating healthy masculinity.

Understanding the Meat-Masculinity Link: Traditional and Non-Traditional Masculine Norms Predicting Men’s Meat Consumption

ABSTRACT Conformity to masculinity ideology predicts men’s meat consumption and willingness to reduce their meat intake, but it is unknown which specific masculine norms account for these relationships. This study investigated which traditional and non-traditional masculine norms predict meat consumption, red and processed meat consumption, and willingness to reduce meat consumption in 557 Australian and English males. Men who support the use of physical violence and place high importance on sex ate more meat. Willingness to reduce was highest among men with gender egalitarian views. Targeting these specific masculine norms may be important for mitigating men’s overconsumption of meat.

INFLUENCERS, HASHTAGS AND CAMPAIGNS: THE ROLE OF INSTAGRAM IN ADVANCING MALE BODY POSITIVITY

This research paper investigates the role of social media in shaping and advancing the male body positivity movement. The male body positivity movement has recently gained significant traction, challenging traditional masculinity norms and promoting body acceptance among men. Research indicates that men, like women, experience body dissatisfaction, although they often remain silent about it due to societal expectations that frame body image concerns as predominantly a female issue. Social media platforms, especially Instagram, offer men a space to discuss these concerns, share their experiences and build supportive communities. Given that India has the highest number of Instagram users globally, it is important to examine how male body positivity is represented and perceived on Instagram. With a focus on the intersection of digital culture and body image activism, this study examines how online platforms such as Instagram contribute to the dissemination of body-positive messages and the promotion of diverse representations of masculinity in the international and Indian spheres. Utilizing a qualitative approach, the paper analyses user-generated content created by Instagram influencers, body positive movements and hashtags as well as focus group discussions of users from India. This research contributes to a deeper understanding of contemporary discourses surrounding masculinity, body image and digital activism. The study concludes that while social media can reinforce harmful body image ideals, it also has the potential to promote body positivity and self-acceptance.

Self-perceptions of masculinities and testicular cancer: Qualitative explorations.

Masculinities have been explored in men with testicular cancer (TC), though limited contemporary research is available on traditional masculine norms important to masculine self-perception. The purpose of this research was to explore the discourse of TC experience in relation to masculine self-perception. A qualitative descriptive study was conducted consisting of semi-structured interviews with 21 men. Men were aged between 31 and 47 (Mage=35.7). Most men were diagnosed with Stage 1 cancer (66.6%), all men had finished active treatment and time since diagnosis ranged from 17.3 to 71.8months (M=47.2). Independent coding was conducted by two researchers and was refined in coding meetings with authors. Themes were developed in a predominantly deductive manner, and analysis of themes was undertaken using a reflexive analysis approach. Traditional masculine norms showed differing relationships to masculine self-perception. Two main themes were identified [1] Maintained or enhanced masculine self-perception and [2] threats to masculine self-perception. Subthemes demonstrated that maintaining emotional control, strength and 'winning' was important to men, and reduced physical competencies (i.e., strength, sexual dysfunction, virility) challenged self-perception. Strict adherence to traditional norms in response to threatened self-perception related to psychological distress. Leveraging traditionally masculine norms such as physical strength and control and developing flexible adaptations of masculinities should be encouraged with men with TC to retain self-perception and potentially enable better coping. Masculine self-perception of gay/bisexual men may centre around sexual functioning, though further research is required.

Value-related attitudes towards mental health problems and help-seeking barriers: a sequential mixed-methods design investigating participants with reported depressive episodes in rural Northern Germany with and without treatment experience

BackgroundSeeking help for severe depressive symptoms remains a major obstacle for particular groups within the general population. Value-related attitudes might contribute to this treatment gap, particularly in rural regions with a low density of psychiatric-psychotherapeutic services. We aimed to investigate narratives of socialization, value systems, and barriers of help-seeking to better understand social milieus at increased risk for underuse of psychiatric-psychotherapeutic services in a rural area in East Germany. This could complement the explanatory power of classical socio-demographic determinants and provide guidance for possible interventions.MethodBased on results of an analysis of a population-based German cohort study (SHIP-TREND-1), 20 individual semi-structured interviews were conducted with participants who met criteria for having been moderately or severely depressed at least once in their life. Qualitative analyses of interview data were guided by grounded theory methodology.ResultsParticipants with severe symptoms of depression were more frequent among non-responders of this study. We identified key aspects that influence help-seeking for mental health problems and seem to be characteristic for rural regions: family doctors serve as initial contact points for mental health problems and are considered as alternatives for mental health professionals; norms of traditional masculinity such as being more rational than emotional, needing to endure hardships, embodying strength, and being independent were frequently mentioned as inhibiting help-seeking by middle-aged men; anticipated adverse side-effects of therapy such as worsening of symptoms; a frequently expressed desire for less pathologically perceived treatment options.ConclusionsOur results suggest that barriers regarding help-seeking in rural regions are multifaceted and seem to be influenced by traditional norms of masculinity. We believe it is critical to strengthen existing and already utilized services such as family doctors and to implement and evaluate tailored interventions targeting the needs of the rural milieu.

Social rank and compassion: How insecure striving, social safeness and fears of compassion mediate the relationship between masculinity, depression and anxiety.

Traditional masculinity norms displayed by men attempt to signal a dominance or 'toughness' to others; however, traditional masculine norms are associated with a range of mental health difficulties, including depression and anxiety. Based on social rank theory, we tested the mediating role of insecure striving, social safeness and fears of compassion on the relationship between masculinity, anxiety and depression. We also examined whether compassionate goals were negatively correlated with masculine norm adherence. We used a cross-sectional survey design recruiting 844 men, aged 18-60 years (M = 34.0, SD = 14.4). Our results replicated previous findings with masculine norms significantly associated with depression and anxiety. Extending on previous work, we found insecure striving, social safeness and fears of compassion fully mediated these relationships for anxiety and partially for depression. This relationship was strongest for the masculinity subtypes of self-reliance and emotional control. Compassionate goals were negatively associated with masculine norm adherence. Social rank theory offers a helpful explanatory framework to understand the links between traditional masculinity and mental health, highlighting the importance of social safeness and insecure striving for men.

Paternal Postpartum Depression and Associated Factors Among Partners of Women Who Gave Birth in Seka Town, Southwest Ethiopia.

Despite epidemiologic studies demonstrating the increased incidence of paternal postpartum depression, their emotional health is overlooked throughout their partner's pregnancy and postpartum period as postpartum depression has been traditionally construed as a disease of women. Traditional masculinity norms also result in a lack of recognition and barriers to the treatment of depression in men. This study is aimed to determine the prevalence and factors of paternal postpartum depression among fathers whose wives gave birth. A community-based cross-sectional study was conducted from July 7 to 17, 2023. The 288 sample size was estimated using a single population proportion formula and selected by random sampling technique. The data were exported from Kobo Toolbox and analyzed using SPSS version 26. Candidate variables were identified in bivariate at p < .25 for the multivariate analysis. A p < .05 and adjusted odds ratio (AOR) were used to determine the significance. A total of 280 partners participated making a 97.22% response rate. Paternal postpartum depression was 19.6%(95% confidence interval [CI] = [15.4%, 24.3%]). It was significantly associated with history of depression (AOR = 4.4, 95% CI = [1.7, 10.9]), unplanned pregnancy (AOR = 4.7, 95% CI = [1.9, 11.3]), alcohol consumption (AOR: 3.0, 95% CI = [1.3, 7.4]), infant sleeping problem (AOR: 3.0, 95% CI = [1.1, 8.9]), and mode of delivery (AOR: 3.0, 95% CI = [1.3, 7.6]). This study concluded that paternal postpartum depression was high. The researchers recommended the inclusion of men's mental health services like screening into women's postnatal health care.

Роль норм маскулинности в формировании школьного буллинга

&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;The article presents an analytical review of domestic and foreign publications highlighting the problem of school bullying in the context of adolescents&amp;rsquo; adherence to the norms of traditional masculinity. It is necessary to consider school bullying through the prism of how gender stereotypes become dangerous for those boys who do not feel a sense of belonging to this large social group due to the fact that they do not fully comply with normative male behavior. Such children will be subject to ridicule and attempts to adjust their behavior to the appropriate norm both from the peers and, probably, from the teachers. Recent studies in several countries show that school bullying affects up to 35% of children. Most often, boys are involved in bullying and practices of physical abuse. Traditional norms of masculinity prescribe them and encourage aggressive, active behavior, competition and the avoidance of weakness and passivity. These standards prohibit boys from being tender, crying, and provoking aggression in response to an attack. Those boys who cannot fight back are bullied by other boys.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

Real men don't talk? Relationships among depressiveness, loneliness, conformity to masculine norms, and male non-disclosure of mental distress

Men are a particularly challenging group when it comes to mental health communication. Non-disclosure of mental distress is quite common among men in general, and even more so among depressed men – despite its detrimental effects on health. Motivating men to share their mental distress with trusted social contacts serves as a vital first step in addressing and improving their mental health – both for those men who are affected by mental illness and those who are not. To overcome the barriers to communicating about mental distress, knowledge about the aspects associated with non-disclosure is indispensable. Bringing together assumptions from interpersonal communication and (mental) health communication literature, we propose a conceptual model of the relationships among depressiveness, loneliness, conformity to masculine norms, number of trusted social contacts, and non-disclosure of mental distress. To empirically test our model, we conducted a cross-sectional online survey with 1,400 men in Germany. Findings largely substantiate our model. They show that a higher depressiveness is positively associated with men's non-disclosure of mental distress – both directly and mediated through several other variables. Loneliness emerged as an important mediating factor, with a higher depressiveness being linked to higher loneliness, which increased the likelihood for men's non-disclosure. Depressiveness was also associated with a higher conformity to traditional masculine norms, again making non-disclosure of mental distress more probable.

Erkeklik ve Psikolojik Yardım Arama: Sosyal Kimlik Kuramı Temelli Bir Derleme

To improve their quality of life and mental health, people need psychological help. Past research revealed that although participants reported low levels of life satisfaction, they were hesitant to seek psychological help. In the literature, this situation has been defined as mental health treatment gap. In this context, research focuses on reducing the treatment gap by identifying factors that facilitate and hinder seeking psychological help. Many studies consistently report that men are more reluctant to seek psychological help than women. Therefore, there is a need for a more detailed examination of the factors that affect men's reluctance to seek psychological help. Based on this fact, the study's primary purpose is to provide enlightening information about why men avoid seeking psychological help and the factors that encourage them to seek help. In this study, masculinity's role in seeking help is emphasized in the context of Social Identity Theory. However, past research findings on situations and contexts in which men are willing to seek psychological help are presented. Practitioners and researchers in the mental health field, such as psychiatrists, psychologists, social workers, and psychological counselors, can learn a lot from the review's opinions on the role of traditional masculine norms in seeking psychological help.

Does the Cultural Dimension Influence the Relationship between Firm Value and Board Gender Diversity in Saudi Arabia, Mediated by ESG Scoring?

The scarcity of female directors on Saudi boards is linked to cultural and social barriers deeply rooted in traditional masculine norms. Our study investigates the mediating role of ESG scores in the relationship between board gender diversity and firm value within the Saudi context. The Structural Equation Model (SEM) was utilized based on a sample of 54 Saudi-listed financial companies on (Tadawul) during 2021–2022. The study unveiled a negative correlation between female director presence and Saudi firm value. This association is attributed to the prevailing male-dominated Saudi societal norms, where boards with more female members may hesitate to prioritize performance-driven actions due to concerns about their perceived legitimacy within traditional gender roles. Conversely, a positive correlation was observed between female director presence and ESG scores, aligning with existing research highlighting the role of board gender diversity in improving sustainability performance. The sustainability framework prevails over the influence of gender diversity, fully integrating it within the broader context of sustainability to enhance the value of Saudi companies. Our results are consistent when considering alternative measures of firm value. Our findings offer valuable insights for investors assessing board gender diversity’s impact on company value and emphasize the role of gender diversity in enhancing sustainability. They suggest that greater female representation on boards is vital for ESG score improvement, promoting sustainable initiatives and overall firm value. This calls for policymakers to promote sustainability disclosures and establish guidelines for increased female board participation, considering the absence of mandatory quotas.

Evaluation of an online suicide prevention campaign targeting men.

Men are at elevated risk of suicide compared to women. Adherence to traditional norms of masculinity can interfere with potential protective factors such as openness to talk and seeking social support, which can contribute to the increased suicide risk. An online public health campaign was developed to improve mental health among men and tackle the stigma surrounding it. This study aimed at examining whether the online suicide prevention campaign targeting men increased openness to talk about emotions and help-seeking behavior and decreased hopelessness and adherence to traditional gender norms concerning self-reliance. 250 men (18+) from Flanders (Belgium) were recruited online and given access to the campaign website for a period of 3 days. Before and after viewing the campaign website, participants were asked to complete an online survey. Viewing the campaign was associated with a small increase in help-seeking intention when experiencing suicidal thoughts. Among men who reported mental health problems, a small increase in openness to communicating and expressing emotions was found after viewing the campaign. In general, participants evaluated the campaign positively. This study demonstrated the potential beneficial impact of an online prevention campaign specifically targeting men on health behaviors that may protect against suicidal behavior.

The Relationship Between Masculinity and Help-Seeking Among Australian Men Living in Non-urban Areas

This study explores how traditional masculine norms affect mental health help-seeking attitudes in men residing in regional, rural, and remote Australia. Participants ( N = 271) were men living outside of major cities of Australia. Analyses of survey data found increasing endorsement of masculine norms was predictive of more negative attitudes toward help-seeking. Perceived barriers to help seeking partially mediated relationships between masculine norms and help seeking. Full mediation was present for gender role conflict through perceived barriers and help seeking. These findings suggest efforts to improve mental health of men from non-urban communities may consider the way health messages could be targeted to optimise help seeking. Increasing engagement with stakeholders, such as clinicians, community groups, government agencies, and mental health organisations is warranted when engaging men living in non-urban areas.

The mediating role of self-compassion and the moderating role of restrictive emotionality in gender role discrepancy and depression

Masculine gender role discrepancy is men's perception of themselves as people who fail to conform to traditional masculine norms. There is solid scientific evidence that gender role discrepancy is related to grave mental health outcomes such as depression. Yet, the mechanisms that explicate the relationship between masculine gender role discrepancy and masculine depression remain unclear. As individual differences in men are suggested to be associated with depression, the current study aimed to examine the mediating role of self-compassion and the moderating role of restrictive emotionality in the association between masculine gender role discrepancy and masculine depression.For the purpose of the current study, a structured questionnaire was distributed through online means, resulting in a sample of 954 men aged 18 and older. The results revealed that self-compassion partially mediates the relationship between gender role discrepancy and masculine depression. Moreover, a positive effect of gender role discrepancy on masculine depression was found to be more pronounced at higher levels of restrictive emotionality. The contemporary empirical evidence underscores the significance of individual variances in adhering to conventional masculine gender norms concerning the nexus between gender role discrepancy and masculine depression. Moreover, this research accentuates the salience of gender role matters in shaping the mental well-being of men.

Risk and refuge: Factors that facilitate and impede community supervision in post-conflict Northern Ireland

ABSTRACT Community sanctions often require the coordination of support between probation staff and a range of non-governmental organisations (NGOs). Despite these burgeoning partnerships, few studies have explored the experiences of such support in settings where community spaces and structures remain contested, where violence remains endemic; and where paramilitary influence endures. This explorative study captured the voices of justice involved young men to understand the barriers and facilitators of accessing support intended to reduce the latent criminogenic effects of living in a post-conflict society. This study found that young men experienced ecological stressors known to increase criminal coping. Exposure to paramilitary-related harms and a lack of trust in police as well as local NGOs had a tangible effect on support seeking. Further, adherence to traditional masculine norms exacerbated these issues. Practical implications are discussed.

Neo-traditionalist, egalitarian and progressive masculinities in men's heterosexual intimate partner relationships

Shifts in gender roles, identities and relations since the 1980s are continuing to influence masculinities within intimate partner relationships. Forefront in men's contemporary heterosexual relationships have been calls for gender equality and gender equity as a means to promoting the mental health and well-being of partners and their families. Most previous research has focused on a pathologized role of men in relationships (e.g., intimate partner violence). Little is known about how men perceive intimate partner relationships using a strength-based perspective. The current photovoice study addressed the research question, ‘What are the connections between masculinities and men's heterosexual intimate partner relationships?’ to highlight young men's (19-43 years-old) experiences of, and perspectives about their intimate partner relationships. Drawing from individual Zoom interviews with 92 heterosexual, cisgender men from 14 countries, we abductively derived three masculine typologies: 1) neo-traditionalist, 2) egalitarian and 3) progressive. Twenty-two (24%) participants embodied neo-traditionalist masculinities characterized by reliance's on traditional masculine norms that assign domesticities as feminine and prize masculine breadwinner and protector roles. Half of the participants (50%, n = 46) purposefully distanced themselves from traditional masculine norms to engage egalitarian masculinities. These men idealized equal (50-50) contributions and reciprocity wherein counts were often used to evaluate each partner's relative efforts and contributions to the relationship. Progressive masculinities were evident in 26% (n = 24) of participants who focused on fairness and social justice, checking their own privilege to justly operate within the relationship, and more broadly in society. The three typologies are grounded in men's heterosexual intimate partner gender relations, and advance masculinity frameworks to guide future health-research, policy and practice. In addition, there are opportunities for men's mental health promotion by prompting readers' reflexivity to thoughtfully consider what they idealize, and where they map in relation to the masculine typologies featured in the current article.

Let’s Talk About Single Men: A Qualitative Investigation of Never Married Men’s Experiences of Singlehood

Existing research on singlehood has largely focused on the experiences of single women, and little is known about singlehood among men. The current investigation examined the experience of long-term singlehood through individual, semi-structured interviews with 22 never-married single men living in Poland who were aged 22–43 years. Thematic analysis revealed five key themes: (1) the sense of being deficient—is there something wrong with me?; (2) navigating outside the dominant discourse of traditional masculinity, marriage and family; (3) the benefits and downsides of singlehood; (4) adaptation to singlehood; and (5) the dilemma between waiting and actively searching for a romantic partner. An analysis of single men’s narratives revealed that men experience their single status in the context of their various needs and hopes and as a status that determines their adult life course. This study contributes to the singlehood literature, highlighting the complexity of singlehood for men and the importance of traditional masculinity norms in experiencing long-term singlehood.These findings challenge stereotypical and unrealistic views of singlehood among men and have practical implications for psychotherapists, counsellors and educators working with single men.