Traditional Masculine Norms Research Articles

Amigos and amistades: the role of men's social network ties in shaping HIV vulnerability in the Dominican Republic

While men's social networks have been identified as a source of influence on sexual behaviour, less is known about the different types of friendship ties within men's networks. We analysed data from qualitative in-depth interviews with 36 men in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic who are current or former sexual partners of female sex workers to understand how: (1) men describe trust and communication with different types of friendship ties, (2) characteristics of trust and communication reflect norms of masculinity, and (3) these friendship ties influence HIV-related behaviours. We identified a distinction between amistades, social drinking buddies who are not trusted, and amigos, trusted friends. The majority of men lacked any amigos and some had neither amigos nor amistades. In general, men reflected traditional norms of masculinity and said they did not feel they could discuss their relationships or emotional topics with other men. Trust and communication dynamics, and how norms of masculinity shape those dynamics, should be understood and addressed in the design of HIV prevention efforts with men's social networks as they have implications for the potential effectiveness of such efforts.

Gender and (Un)Sustainability—Can Communication Solve a Conflict of Norms?

In theory, and even more in the practice of sustainability communications, the gender dimension of sustainability has been neglected relative to other fields of the science. The aim of this paper is to show the relevance of gender as an analytical category for research and the importance of gender competence as an indispensable skill for professional sustainability communicators. Understanding how gender norms have contributed to inhibiting sustainable development is key to well-targeted means to communicate visions of sustainable ways of life. Traditional norms of masculinity are clearly in tension with the ethical, ecological and social implications of Sustainable Development, whereas the norms of femininity work against empowerment and participation of women. Current changes in gender relations and gender identities in the western world do not automatically solve this conflict of norms. Therefore, sustainability communication must and can contribute to shaping the social construction of gender towards new “sustainable” norms and ideals for the various gender identities in western societies. In order to achieve this, gender mainstreaming (GM) needs to be implemented in the field of sustainability communication, from capacity building for communicators to project design and research. Gender and diversity competence is to become a professional requirement, assuring that traditional “doing gender” is avoided, cultural diversity respected and structural inequalities are made visible. Visions of sustainable societies should include changes in gender relations. The argument is based on sociological studies, gender theories, gender policies, and environmental and sustainability communication studies, empirically supported by biographical studies and media analyses over the last twenty years in Western Europe, mainly Germany.

Men developing emotional intelligence through meditation? Integrating narrative, cognitive and electroencephalography (EEG) evidence.

Traditional masculine norms around emotions (e.g., inexpressiveness) can mean men have difficulties managing their emotions, contributing to potential mental health problems. However, it is recognized that men and masculinities are diverse, and that some men can positively self-manage their mental health, although this has received little attention in the literature. Uniquely, we sought to find men who had discovered ways to engage constructively with their emotions, in this case through meditation. Thirty male meditators, recruited using a maximum variation sampling strategy, participated in a longitudinal mixed-methods study in the United Kingdom. Participants undertook 2 cognitive neuroscience sessions, approximately 1 year apart, composed of cognitive assessments of attention combined with electroencephalograph measurement during task performance and meditation. In-depth narrative interviews exploring men's experiences of meditation were also conducted at both time points, analyzed using a modified constant comparison approach. Taken together, the quantitative and qualitative results suggest that men developed attention skills through meditation, although there were variations according to previous meditation experience (e.g., a sharper longitudinal increase in theta amplitude under meditation for novice practitioners). Moreover, development of attention appeared to enhance men's emotional intelligence, which in turn could be conducive to well-being. The results have implications for psychologists working with men, pointing to the potential for teaching men about better regulating their emotions for improved well-being.

Posttraumatic Growth Among Men With Histories of Child Sexual Abuse

Despite an increased risk of long-term mental health problems, many survivors of child sexual abuse (CSA) experience positive changes in areas such as appreciation for life, personal strength, and interpersonal relationships. Drawing on life course theory, this study examined factors related to posttraumatic growth among a sample of men with CSA histories (N = 487). Using multiple linear regression (i.e., ordinary least squares), we found that men who had a better understanding of the sexual abuse experience, who ascribed to less traditional masculine norms, and who experienced a turning point reported greater growth. To promote growth, practitioners can help survivors understand the meaning and impact of the abuse on their lives and deconstruct rigid gender norms. More research on growth is needed with male survivors, especially on the nature of turning points in the recovery process.

"Indenturing the Body": Traditional Masculine Role Norms, Body Image Discrepancy, and Muscularity in a Sample of South African Indian Boys

This paper investigates the relationship between traditional masculine role norms, body image discrepancy, body appearance schemas, and sociocultural attitudes toward appearance in a sample of 495 South African Indian school going boys aged 13 to 18 years. Constructs were measured using the Masculine Role Norms Inventory, Lynch and Zellner’s Body Figure Drawings (1999), Appearance Schemas Inventory, and the Sociocultural Attitudes towards Appearance Scale-3. Analysis revealed a localized hegemonic masculinity of nonviolence, and a significant association between traditional masculinity norms of status-seeking, heteronormativity, anti-femininity, and restrictive emotionality, with body image discrepancy. Sociocultural attitudes towards appearance favoured athletic muscularity as a body ideal coinciding with heterosexist scripts, perceptions of mesomorph physiques in Bollywood cinema, and steroid use.

"Emo" Culture and Gender Norms in Late Adolescents and Young Adults

The present study examined the extent to which youth who endorse emo subculture reject the traditional masculine norm of restrictive emotionality. It also examined the relationships between endorsement and rejection of emo subculture and traditional masculine and feminine norms and masculine gender role conflict. In Study 1 (N = 13) three focus groups were conducted to create the mixed methods Emo Culture Questionnaire (ECQ). In Study 2 (N = 164) exploratory factor analysis of the quantitative part of the ECQ resulted in a 15-item, 4-factor scale; however, due to low reliabilities, only two scales were used in the analyses. Three hypotheses were mostly supported. The endorsement of emo subculture by men was negatively associated with their Restrictive Emotionality subscale scores of both the Male Role Norms Inventory-Revised (MRNI-R) and Gender Role Conflict Scale (GRCS). The endorsement of emo subculture by women was negatively associated with their MRNI-R Restrictive Emotionality scores but was not positively associated their Femininity Ideology Scale (FIS) Emotionality scores. Negative views of the emo subculture by both men and women were positively correlated with their MRNI-R Restrictive Emotionality scores. An exploratory question found that the endorsement of emo subculture had significant negative correlations with three additional MRNI-R subscales and the total scale for men and with five MRNI-R subscales and the total scale for women. In addition, the endorsement of emo subculture had significant negative correlations with two FIS subscales, and with two additional GRCS subscales and the total scale for men. Qualitative results from the ECQ indicated that while the label “emo” may not function as a personal identifier, the music, fashion, and behavior thus identified remain popular.

Gay men and drag: Dialogical resistance to hegemonic masculinity

Hegemonic masculinity has been a valuable theoretical approach to understanding ways in which cultures coax members to conform to the requisites of dominant masculinity. However, it has difficulty explaining individual resistances to hegemonic pressures. This paper is one in a series of projects which have identified communities that explicitly defy traditional masculinity norms in order to understand the psychosocial methodologies employed to accomplish resistance within the systemic pressures of hegemonic masculinity. We utilized dialogical self theory as a model to investigate how a gay male drag theater troupe negotiates masculinity in order to understand how that negotiation can help resist dominant discourses of masculinity and form community.

The Many Faces of Manhood

This study examined the relationship between the traditional masculine norms ("status," "toughness" and "antifemininity") of 296 ethnically and racially diverse, young men transitioning to fatherhood and substance use (smoking, alcohol, marijuana, hard drugs) and health behaviors (diet, exercise). Participants were recruited from urban obstetric clinics in the Northeast United States. Logistic and multiple regression equations were constructed to examine the relationship between masculine norms and health behaviors. Moderator effects were also examined. Masculine norm "status" was most endorsed and "antifemininity" was least endorsed. African American young men had higher masculine norm scores than Latino and Whites. Different masculine norms were associated with health-promoting and health-undermining behaviors. Different racial groups who had higher scores on some masculine norms were more likely to engage in either health-promoting or health-undermining behaviors when compared with other ethnic groups in this study. These results observed different relationships between the traditional masculine norms measured and the substance use and health behaviors of diverse, young men transitioning to fatherhood. This may have implications for intervention strategies and future research.

Men's help seeking: Examination of differences across community size, education, and income.

The present study examined the relationships between traditional Western masculine norms, self-stigma, and attitudes toward counseling among 4,748 men from different community sizes, and different education and income levels. Structural equation modeling (SEM) analyses suggest that, across all male subgroups, masculine norms were linked to self-stigma and, in turn, attitudes toward counseling. However, several clear differences in the strengths of the relationships between model variables were found, including a relationship between masculine norms and self-stigma that was twice as strong for rural men than for other men. The importance of attending to the varying relationships among masculine norm conformity, self-stigma, and help-seeking attitudes for men from these diverse demographic backgrounds—in the context of clinical practice, prevention, and future research—is discussed.

Is Normative Male Alexithymia Associated with Relationship Satisfaction, Fear of Intimacy and Communication Quality among Men in Relationships?

This study investigated the relationships between Normative Male Alexithymia (NMA), Relationship Satisfaction, Fear of Intimacy, and Communication Quality among men in relationships. NMA is the inability of men to put emotions into words posited to result from traditional masculine role socialization, and reflected in the endorsement of and conformity to traditional masculine norms (Levant et al, 2006). Previous research has found a moderate, negative relationship between alexithymia and relationship satisfaction (Humphreys, Wood, & Parker, 2009). It was hypothesized that NMA would negatively correlate with Relationship Satisfaction and Communication Quality but would positively correlate with Fear of Intimacy. A sample of 175 men from university and community sources volunteered for the study. All three hypotheses were supported by the findings. These findings set the stage for future explorations into the effects of the results of masculine gender role socialization, such as Normative Male Alexithymia, on romantic relationships.

Moral Atmosphere and Masculine Norms in American College Football

This study examined on-field antisocial sports behaviors among 274 American football players in the United States. Results indicated that moral atmosphere (i.e., teammate, coach influence) and conformity to masculine norms were significantly related to participants’ moral behavior on the field (i.e., intimidate, risk injury, cheat, intentionally injure opponents). In other words, the perception that coaches and teammates condone on-field antisocial behaviors—in addition to conforming to societal expectations of traditional masculinity—is related to higher levels of antisocial behaviors on the football field. In addition, conformity to traditional masculine norms mediated the relationship between moral atmosphere and on-field aggressive sports behaviors, suggesting a relationship between social norms and moral atmosphere. Results of this interdisciplinary endeavor are interpreted and situated within the extant literature of both the fields of sport psychology and the psychological study of men and masculinity. Sport psychologists can use results to design interventions that incorporate moral atmosphere and conformity to masculine norms in an effort to decrease aggressive sports behaviors in the violent sport of football.

The role of masculine norms and informal support on mental health in incarcerated men.

Mental health problems, in general, and major depression in particular, are prevalent among incarcerated men. It is estimated that 23% of state inmates report experiencing symptoms of major depression. Despite the high rates of depressive symptoms, there is little understanding about the psychosocial factors that are associated with depressive and anxiety symptoms of incarcerated men. One factor relevant to the mental health of incarcerated men is their adherence to traditional masculine norms. We investigated the role of masculine norms and informal support on depressive and anxiety symptoms among 123 incarcerated men. The results revealed that adherence to the masculine norm of emotional control were negatively associated with depressive symptoms while heterosexual presentation and informal support were related to both depressive and anxiety symptoms. High levels of reported informal support moderated the effects of heterosexual presentation on depressive and anxiety symptoms. Public health and clinical implications are discussed.

Athletic Identity and Conformity to Masculine Norms Among College Football Players

Sport represent an influential institution of masculinity socialization that impacts the psychosocial development of many men in American society. In order to examine this dynamic, we investigated conformity to masculine norms among 523 college football players. Results indicated that participants’ conformity to traditional masculine norms was influenced by year in school, on-field position played, and athletic identity. Results of this interdisciplinary endeavor between the fields of sport psychology and the psychological study of men and masculinity can assist sport psychologists in designing interventions to help football players better understand messages of masculinity conveyed within the unique socialization context of football.

Profile of masculine norms and help-seeking stigma in college football.

This study represents an interdisciplinary endeavor between the fields of sport psychology and the psychological study of men and masculinity. The purpose of this study was to provide a greater understanding of the relationship between traditional masculine norms and help-seeking attitudes within th

Masculinity and male sexual behaviour in Mozambique

Like many countries in sub-Saharan Africa, Mozambique is facing a severe HIV epidemic. Evidence suggests that male sexual behaviour is one of the driving forces behind the epidemic. Yet, there is limited understanding of how notions of masculinity influence such behaviour in the context of HIV. Using data collected through focus group discussions and in-depth interviews with sexually active men and women, this paper investigates how notions of masculinity influence the risk of HIV infection among men. The study findings suggest that traditional norms of masculinity, the man as the main provider and figure of authority, continue to exert a strong influence on male attitudes and behaviour. Alternative approaches are urgently needed in HIV programming that take into consideration notions of masculinity in order to reduce risky sexual behaviour.

Drive for muscularity and conformity to masculine norms among college football players.

With sociocultural norms in American culture suggesting that muscularity is associated with masculinity, men often strive for a muscular physique. Because the psychological research on this drive for muscularity has focused primarily on negative outcomes, our mixed-method study intended to assess the contextual nature of this dynamic by examining muscularity within a functional context (e.g., sport). We assessed the experiences of 197 college football players who operate in this “masculinized” context (e.g., Richman & Shaffer, 2000) where muscularity is viewed functionally (i.e., maximizing athletic performance, minimizing injuries). Quantitative results indicated that athletic identity and certain traditional masculine norms (i.e., risk taking, emotional control, primacy of work) were significantly related to the drive for muscularity among college football players. Qualitative results indicated that football players primarily cited reasons for their desire to be muscular that were related to athletic functioning, while also acknowledging social benefits of external gratification (e.g., physical appearance, conformity, sex appeal) that are more prominent in the drive for muscularity literature. Results of this contextual examination were interpreted within existing theoretical frameworks of social comparison theory, masculinity socialization, and drive for muscularity.

Conformity to gender norms among female student-athletes: Implications for body image.

Fort Lewis CollegeSport exposes athletes to attributes that are typically associated with traditional mas-culine traits (e.g., individualism, competitiveness, aggressiveness, power). Femaleathletes often participate in sport using standards of traditional male athleticism, yet atthe same time attempt to manage societal expectations of conforming to traditionalfemininity. By exploring conformity to gender norms in sport, we examined therelationship between gender norms, sport participation, and perceptions of body imageamong 143 female student-athletes and nonathletes. Results indicated that femalestudent-athletes and nonathlete female college students did not differ in level ofconformity to feminine norms; however, female student-athletes reported higher levelsof conformity to masculine norms, particularly traditional masculine norms associatedwith sport participation (i.e., winning, risk taking). Additionally, participation inathletics did not signiÞcantly predict body esteem for women. Instead, conformity tothree traditional gender normsÐalong with self-perceptions of being overweightÐaccounted for 53% of the variance in body esteem. Results are discussed in regard topast research and clinical applications.Keywords: Conformity to Masculine Norms (CMNI), Conformity to Feminine Norms(CFNI), body esteem, female college student-athletes, gender socialization in sport

Suicide and dominant masculinity norms among current and former United States military servicemen.

Recent statistics suggest current and former United States military personnel are at a greater risk for suicide than ever before. Indeed, approximately 300 active-duty servicemen died by suicide in 2009, a population-adjusted death rate exceeding that of civilians (U.S. Department of Defense, 2010). Despite a growing body of literature highlighting the adverse consequences of men’s adherence to traditional masculine norms on their physical and emotional health, little attention has been paid to the contributions of compliance with these norms on current and former male military personnel’s risk for suicide. The present manuscript highlights the need for greater consideration of servicemen’s adherence to norms of masculinity to better understand their suicide risk. To organize this presentation, the authors discuss how current and former servicemen’s adherence to social and military injunctions for masculine behavior may contribute to an unwillingness to utilize mental health services that, in turn, exacerbates their mental health and may contribute to their risk for suicide. The authors also provide specific recommendations for gender-sensitive treatment interventions and future research.

Intimate partner violence and the role of masculinity in male same-sex relationships.

Intimate partner violence (IPV) in heterosexual couples has been heavily researched for decades, but researchers have only recently begun to examine the correlates of violent behavior in same-sex relationships. Masculinity and male-role socialization have long been recognized as related to many forms of violent behavior, but masculine behavior in gay men and its role in IPV have not been similarly studied. In a community sample of 117 ethnically diverse, primarily college educated gay and bisexual men, it was found that men who had perpetrated physical or sexual violence in their same-sex relationships reported higher levels of masculine behaviors than men who had not used violence. A high correlation between perpetrating acts of IPV and being the victim of such acts was also found. Greater conformity to traditional masculine norms, specifically, aggressiveness and suppression of emotional vulnerability, was a significant predictor of perpetrator physical violence over and above being the recipient of phy...

Strong(er) Women and Effete Men: Negotiating Chineseness in Philippine Cinema at a Time of Transnationalism

For centuries, dominant groups subjected the Chinese in the Philippines to different forms of identifications as a way to localize them. The Chinese in turn found ways to deflect and manipulate such means of control. Focusing on five films on Chinese Filipinos, this essay describes how, in an era of increasing globalization and China's ascendance to superpower status, the Chinese in the Philippines construct and negotiate contemporary versions of “Chineseness” to achieve economic success and social acceptance. In particular, it focuses on a Filipino-Chinese organization's invention of the category “Tsinoy” as a creative but delicate attempt to embed the Chinese in the national consciousness and construct a positive image of the Chinese. For, as seen in the films, other Chinese can appropriate the term while both local and regional changes reinforce certain Chinese stereotypes. Furthermore, as Chinese Filipinos engage in transnational practices and participate in triumphalist versions of Chineseness, gender roles are either reinforced or reconfigured. Women assume more power, hence becoming “stronger.” However, such “empowerment” is still proscribed within the Confucian moral economy of the family, thereby preserving Chinese patriarchy. Simultaneously, men who are trapped between the traditional norms of masculinity and desire for self-expression become effete or ineffectual.