Traditional Kiln Research Articles

Sustainable conversion of agricultural waste into solid fuel (Charcoal) via gasification and pyrolysis treatment

Managing agricultural waste by burning it in the fields is a straightforward method, but leads to significant pollution. One promising alternative is to convert agricultural waste into solid fuel, such as charcoal, to support renewable energy from biomass. The quality of barbecue charcoal depends upon selecting suitable materials and employing heating methods to ensure efficient transformation. This research aims to study the charcoal conversion process from agricultural waste using two types of kilns: 1) direct heating (gasification kiln: GK) and 2) indirect heating (pyrolysis kiln: PK) designed to recirculate syngas from wood as fuel for the pyrolysis process. The study tested three types of agricultural waste materials, including coconut shells (CS), cassava rhizome (CR), and acacia wood (AW), to examine the differences in charcoal produced by the two heating methods. The tests revealed that the maximum temperatures inside the kilns were 792.45 ± 127.18 °C, 907.67 ± 37.3 °C, and 980.07 ± 110.56 °C for the GK, and 921.88 ± 57.84 °C, 801.93 ± 10.16 °C, and 937.82 ± 95.85 °C for the PK. The charcoal from the PK exhibited higher calorific values than the GK, with 7474.68 ± 36.62, 6429.04 ± 72.22, and 7268.33 ± 52.86 calories per gram. The charcoal yield was also higher in the PK, at 31.29 ± 4.39, 34.33 ± 3.39, and 17.58 ± 2.09 percent for coconut shells charcoal (CSC), cassava rhizome charcoal (CRC), and acacia wood charcoal (AWC), respectively. However, the PK required more fuel and longer ignition times. The resulting charcoal from the slow pyrolysis process in the PK is suitable as barbecue fuel due to its size, which is similar to the original material. In contrast, the charcoal from the GK, which tends to shrink or break into smaller pieces, is more suitable for grinding into briquettes. This study provides a guideline for producing high-quality barbecue charcoal, offering commercial benefits including the gasification and pyrolysis processes that improve combustion efficiency and reduce pollution by producing high-quality gas for fuel, unlike traditional kilns that emit a large amount of CO during the conversion of wood to charcoal and enabling the selection of appropriate raw materials for different heating methods to maximise the utility of the products. This approach adds value to agricultural raw materials and helps effectively manage agricultural waste (zero waste) for further utilisation and development.

Mechanical evaluation of soil and artisanal bricks for quality masonry product management, Limpopo South Africa

The selection of raw materials to produce quality artisanal bricks is imperative for sustainable building in rural regions. Artisanal brick-making process often employs traditional kiln to fire brick because it is an affordable, and applicable technology in the rural region. However, there are noticeable cracks, increasing among buildings constructed with artisanal bricks from the rural region in South Africa. In response, this study aims to evaluate the soil and artisanal brick specimens to understand the suitability of the raw materials and quality of products in the study area. A total of twenty soil samples and twenty-seven artisanal burnt bricks were collected from three different artisanal brick-making sites designated as Site A, B, and C. In all samples, the geotechnical tests revealed a sandy loam soil type with a predominance of chlorite clay minerals and non-clay minerals. Furthermore, the sand-size particles depict a relatively higher proportion compared to clay-size particles. Besides, Atterberg’s limit test plotted above the A-line of the plasticity chart indicates an inorganic clay of low plasticity with a low to medium compressibility property. Based on the empirical workability and mechanical tests, most of the studied soils are suitable for optimum and acceptable extrusion bricks and suitable for an on-site single-story construction based on SANS 227:2007 standards.

Comparative analysis of biochar production methods and their impacts on biochar physico-chemical properties and adsorption of heavy metals

Rapid industrialization, urbanization, and population growth result in vast amounts of organic waste being produced, including agricultural waste, animal waste, industrial waste, sewage sludge, and municipal solid waste. Biochar production from solid waste has become a popular waste management method. However, in rural areas of developing nations, biomass is typically used for cooking without being charred. Urban biowaste-derived biochar may enhance soil fertility and overall soil health. However, large-scale biochar production from an electronic muffle furnace could be very expensive, and there is little information on the conversion of biowastes to biochar using traditional kilns or its effects on biochar characteristics, and farmers' biochar production methods are yet underdeveloped. Hence, this study provides biochar production from biowastes using two production methods: 1) a traditional kiln (a tin kiln) intended for use by small farmers and gardeners, and 2) a laboratory muffle furnace, with the aim of evaluating biochar characteristics. Biochar produced in a muffle furnace and tin kiln has found similar physicochemical and adsorption properties at the same pyrolysis conditions. They include high pH, EC, CEC, Pava, Ca, Mg, K, and carbon content. We expect these biochars to have larger long-term effects on agricultural characteristics and soil carbon sequestration. However, the present results might be utilized to drive cleaner biochar production for agricultural use in developing nations, which may multiply local producer benefits.

Economic sustainability for developing a less polluting eucalyptus-charcoal productive system in emerging markets

Charcoal plays a relevant role in developing countries, with potential to contribute to the energy needs as a cheaper and carbon-friendly alternative. In Brazil, eucalyptus-charcoal has gained attention as an input for metal-steel industries, mostly supplied by small and medium forest producers. Those commonly use rudimentary charcoal-kilns, characterized by higher greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, reduced productivity and economically unsustainable impacted by their reduced financial management. In order to fulfill this gap, a simplified financial planning model and an economic analysis of a less polluting charcoal productive system, called kilns-furnace system, were performed, also comparing to traditional charcoal-kilns. A differentiated cost of capital pricing model was also proposed, adjusted to bioenergy projects in emerging markets. Results showed that kilns-furnace system presented the best financial indicators, with greater free cash flow capacity, shorter reimbursement period, reduced charcoal production cost, better return on invested capital and a financial resilience even under pessimistic conditions. With its risk-return ratio verified, kilns-furnace larger insertion may be an attraction for charcoal producers, with probable increased long-term economic sustainability when compared to traditional kilns. The proposed cost of capital pricing model opened a new perspective for its calculation in developing countries, and should be used by producers, companies, and government in investment decision and as a guidance for financing lines.

Effect of storage temperature on the bacterial flora and sensory quality of vacuum packaged smoked catfish (<i>Clarias anguillaris</i>)

This study evaluated the effect of two storage temperatures on the bacterial flora and sensory quality of vacuum packaged smoked catfish (Clarias anguillaris). The catfish was hot smoked using a traditional kiln, with mangrove wood as the source of heat. Total bacterial count (TBC) and sensory parameters (colour, smell. dryness and general appearance) were determined during storage at ambient (28 ± 2°C) and refrigeration (4°C) temperatures for 0-8 weeks. Bacteria were enumerated, isolated and identified using standard methods. Vacuum packaged smoked catfish stored at 4°C (VPCR) had the lowest TBC which increased from 3.23 – 3.58 log10 cfu/g within 2 weeks of storage and stabilized at 3.44 log10 cfu/g for 4 – 8 weeks. The TBC of the vacuum packaged smoked catfish stored at ambient temperature (28 ± 2°C) ranged from 3.32 – 6.88 log10 cfu/g within 6 weeks of storage. The bacteria isolated from fresh catfish belonged to nine genera, namely, Bacillus, Chryseobacterium, Escherichia, Lysinibacillus, Proteus, Pseudomonas, Staphylococcus, Streptococcus and Vibrio. Only Bacillus and Proteus species were isolated from freshly smoked catfish. Isolates from vacuum packaged samples were Bacillus, Lactobacillus, Proteus and Staphylococcus. Molecular characterization of three isolates from fresh catfish revealed that the species were Chryseobacterium aquifridigense, Lysinibacillus mycoides and Vibrio parahaemolyticus. The sensory scores for sample VPCR stored for 8 weeks did not differ significantly (P ≥ 0.05) from freshly smoked catfish, except for the colour. Non-packaged and vacuum packaged smoked catfish samples were of good quality during storage at ambient temperature for 4 weeks, and 4 – 6 weeks, respectively.

Physicochemical Characterization of Woody Lignocellulosic Biomass and Charcoal for Bio-energy Heat Generation

Biomass and its interactions for heat generation have received little attention. In this study, the woody biomass materials were Prosopis africana (PA), Harungana madascariences (HM), Vitrllaria paradoxa (VP), and Afzelia africana (AA). The composition (extractives, carbohydrate, and lignin) of the biomass was determined. The biomass was converted to charcoal in a traditional kiln. A thermo-kinetic examination of the charcoal samples was carried out. The kinetic parameters and potential reaction mechanisms involved in the decomposition process were both obtained using the integral (Flynn–Wall Ozawa) isoconversional methods in conjunction with the Coats-Redfern approach. The activation energy profiles for the charcoal samples in oxidizing atmospheres were 548 kJ/mol for AA, 274 kJ/mol for VP, 548 kJ/mol for PA, and 274 kJ/mol for HM. All charcoal samples underwent comprehensive, multi-step, complex reaction pathways for thermal degradation. The charcoal samples exhibit not only great potential for biochemical extraction but also for bioenergy applications. The significant amount of combustion characteristics in the raw biomass and charcoal samples indicates that each type of wood charcoal produced has more fixed carbon, less ash, and less volatile matter, all of which are desirable for the thermo-chemical conversion of biomass for the production of heat.

Improving traditional charcoal production system for sustainable charcoal income and environmental benefits in highlands of Ethiopia

Charcoal production from Acacia decurrens has shown considerable advantages for enhancing livelihoods and boosting government revenue in Ethiopia. However, the current reliance on unsustainable traditional Earth mound kilns diminishes these benefits, causing reduced charcoal income and notable environmental damage. Therefore, there is a pressing need to improve the traditional charcoal production system. The objectives of this study were evaluating different improved charcoal production approaches on charcoal conversion efficiency, financial profitability, and gas emission reduction potential compared to traditional charcoal making in the Fagta lokoma district, Ethiopia. Charcoal was produced from Acacia decurrens small-scale plantation, using improved kilns (Green mad retort, MRV portable steel, Casamance) and traditional Earth mound kilns, with three replications of production. Statistical analysis revealed a significant increase in charcoal conversion efficiency (at P ≤ 0.001), with the MRV steel kiln exhibiting the highest efficiency (41.57%), followed by the Green mad retort (36.14%) and Casamance (34.07%). Conversely, the traditional Earth mound kilns displayed the lowest conversion efficiency (24%). The findings demonstrated that improved charcoal-making kilns enhanced wood-to-charcoal conversion efficiency by 41–72% compared to traditional kilns. Moreover, the study reveals a significant increase in average charcoal income per hectare (at P ≤ 0.001), with higher earnings (284,824.4 ETB) at MRV steel kiln, and lower-income (71,580 ETB) at traditional Earth mound kilns. Improved charcoal-making kilns significantly (P ≤ 0.001) reduced harmful gas emissions compared to the traditional Earth mound method. Reduction percentages were substantial for various gases: CO2 (46–57.9%), CO (29.4–56.6%), NO (61.7–86.1%), NOx (56.6–86.2%), SO2 (41–62.8%), and CH4 (35.7–57%). In coclusion, the improved kiln technology has substantially enhanced the efficiency of charcoal conversion, resulting in beneficial effects through emissions reduction. To champion sustainability and cultivate positive socio-economic outcomes, it is imperative to extensively adopt these eco-friendly kilns in areas where charcoal production is prominent.

Social and environmental impacts of traditional charcoal production: a case study in Hau Giang province, Viet Nam

This study investigated the status, environmental health risks and assessed contaminant concentrations of waste gases and ambient air quality in traditional charcoal production kiln areas in Hau Giang province. In total, 284 charcoal producers, 160 charcoal workers and 160 neighbors were interviewed using structured questionnaires. Additionally, Carbon monoxide (CO), nitro dioxide (NO2), total suspended particles (TSP), and sulfur dioxide (SO2) from traditional kilns and ambient air samples were analyzed. The result show that the number of kilns owned by each charcoal producer was 3.13 kilns per household; of which the average volume of each kiln was 59.07­ m3 kiln-1, with a yearling charcoal yield of around 80.71 ton kiln-1. The profitability of charcoal producers was annually approximately 133 million VND per household. Charcoal workers predominantly reported suffering from eye irritation issues (41.6%) whilst adjacent neighbors frequently experienced respiratory problems (87.5%). The interviewees obviously recognized the negative impacts of charcoal production activities on community health (63.1% respondents) and local fruit farmers (79.4% respondents), yet only the minority of residents (8.11% respondents) required a change from the current charcoal-based livelihood. The CO, TSP, and SO2 in waste gas compositions all exceeded the maximum permissive levels of the Vietnamese National Standard (QCVN 19:2009/BTNMT), while the air quality surpassed the safety level of TSP and SO2 (QCVN 05:2013/BTNMT). This indicates very high risk to those who are regularly exposed to the air pollutants. The study suggested that technological solutions and responsible policies should be enforced to promote the sustainability of charcoal production and minimize the negative impacts on human health and the environment.

Furnace-kiln system: How does the use of new technologies in charcoal production affect the carbon balance?

Most of the Brazilian charcoal is produced in rudimentary kilns without greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) control. The furnace-kiln system, which allows the burning of methane, stands out in this context. Thus, the goal of this study was to evaluate the carbon balance in the charcoal production with and without the use of the furnace-kiln system. The study was conducted in a farm in Lamim, State of Minas Gerais - Brazil. The average annual carbon increment (AACI) was calculated based on two forest inventories. The GHG emissions related to the eucalyptus forest were calculated based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. The collection and quantification of gases emitted during the wood carbonization were carried out using a gas analyser. The annual carbon balance was calculated using the AACI of the eucalyptus forest, the farm annual emissions, and the charcoal production emissions with and without methane burning. The farm carbon balance without methane burning was 13.9465 MgCO2e ha−1 and with methane burning was 15.9616 MgCO2e ha−1. Thus, the replacement of traditional kilns by the furnace-kiln system was shown to be effective to reduce the emissions established in the Paris Agreement in the Brazilian steel sector.

Sustainable Utilization of Textile Dyeing Sludge and Coal Fly Ash by Brick Production Through Traditional Kilns

The fundamental purpose of this study was to evaluate the technical feasibility of incorporating fly ash (FA) and dyeing sludge (DS) in the production of brick. An attempt was taken to replace 10% to 100% clay by DS and FA in brick-making by volume. A brick firing kiln was used to burn the uniform-shaped bricks after replacing clay with DS and FA. Size and shape, hardness, soundness, water absorption, efflorescence, dry density, loss of ignition, firing shrinkage, specific gravity, compressive strength, and leaching tests were carried out to study the properties of these bricks. The compressive strength of the brink ranged from 6.25 MPa to 0.33 MPa and indicates a decreasing pattern in strength with the increase in the volume of DS and FA. Only 18.8% water absorption capacity was found in control bricks without DS and FA, while a maximum absorption of 40.19% was found for a particular combination of DS and FA. Similarly, dry density decreased with the increase in the volume of DS and FA. Besides, efflorescence in bricks was found within the allowable limits for certain combinations of DS and FA, which exceeded the allowable limits for other combinations. The presence of heavy metals (Ni, Zn, Cr, Cu, and Pb) in the extraction solution was insignificant. Based on the results of this study, we recommend that up to 10% clay can be substituted with DS and FA without substantially affecting the quality of bricks.

The steam-assisted calcination of limestone and dolomite for energy savings and to foster solar calcination processes

CaO and MgO are important industrial raw materials commonly produced by either the decomposition of calcium carbonate at about 900 °C, or the calcination of dolomite, a mixed calcium and magnesium carbonate, calcined either to MgO.CaCO 3 at about 750 °C, or to MgO.CaO at 900 °C. ln this research, the decomposition reaction of 104–147 μm dolomite and limestone particles was investigated, both without and with steam added to the reaction. A series of experiments was performed in terms of relevant parameters such as time, temperature and amount of H 2 O added. Reactants and reaction products were fully characterized and demonstrate the different morphology and specific surface area of the raw carbonate ores and the calcined oxides. Adding H 2 O during calcination has a significant positive effect. The calcination shows that steam can significantly accelerate the reaction rate, and reduce the decomposition temperature by ∼100 °C, thus reducing the cost of the decomposition by increasing the yield for a given reaction time, while also reducing the required sensible heat of the feedstock and combustion air . This ultimately reduces the amount of fossil fuel or alternative energy carriers, thus reducing the CO 2 footprint of the system. The improved operating conditions foster the use of concentrated solar calcination. The CO 2 footprint of the carbonate decomposition can be reduced by ∼4% in traditional kilns , and by as much as 20% if concentrated solar kilns are used. Both applications are currently investigated in pilot-scale operations. • Calcination of dolomite and limestone particles was studied, without and with adding steam. • Steam accelerates the reaction rate and reduces the calcination temperature by ∼100 °C. • Adding steam reduces the energy requirement, thus reducing the CO 2 footprint of the system. • CO 2 emissions are reduced by ∼4% in conventional kilns, and by ∼20% in solar kilns applications.

Hindistan’da Çay Kültürü ve Terakota Bhar Fincanları

Dünya’nın en köklü uygarlıklarına ev sahipliği yapan Hindistan, geçmişin izlerini nesilden nesile devam ettirerek geleneklerini etkili şekilde sürdüren önemli bir kültüre sahiptir. Kültürel miraslarına değer veren ülke, geleneksel çömlekçilik üretimini günümüzde halen devam ettirmektedir. Ülkede geleneksel pişmiş toprak üretimi oldukça eskilere dayanmakta olup, pek çok farklı bölgede yer alan doğal yataklardan çıkarılan killi topraklar; kullanım eşyalarına, zanaata ve sanata dönüşmektedir. En çok kullanılan terakota üretimlerden biri, tek kullanımlık çay fincanları olan Bhar’dır. Günümüzde ülke genelinde çay içmek için pişmiş toprak fincanlar, halk tarafından yoğun talep görmektedir. Köklü çay kültürüne sahip olan ve farklı damak tatlarını içeren Hint çayları; çoğunlukla tercihen geleneksel yöntemlerle çömlekçi tornasında şekillendirilen Bhar’larda içilmektedir. Düşük derecelerde geleneksel fırınlarda pişirilerek kullanıma hazır hale getirilen bu terakota fincanlar, çömlekçiler tarafından günlük üretilmektedir. Bu araştırmada, Hindistan’a özgü çay kültürü ile bu kültür içinde yer alan ve toplum tarafından kanıksanmış terakota Bhar fincanlar incelenmiştir. Bu bağlamda; terakota çay fincanlarının geleneksel üretim yöntemlerine ilişkin süreçleri, Bhar kullanımının kültürel ve geleneksel boyutu, çömlek üreticilerinin sosyo-ekonomik durumu, fincanların tek kullanımlık olması sebebiyle ortaya çıkan çevre faktörü ile ilgili konular ele alınmıştır.

Charcoal Production in Portugal: Operating Conditions and Performance of a Traditional Brick Kiln

Charcoal is produced in large quantities in the Portuguese region of Alentejo mainly using traditional brick kilns. Information about this type of carbonization technology is scarce, which makes it urgent to characterize the process as a starting point for performance improvements. In this context, this study aims to characterize the operation of a cylindrical brick kiln (≈80 m3) during regular wood carbonization cycles. Relevant process parameters were monitored along with the yields and/or composition of the main products (carbonization gas, charcoal, and charcoal fines) to evaluate the mass balance of the process. The results show that the bulk of the kiln operates at temperatures below 300 °C, which greatly limits the quality of the charcoal. For instance, the fixed carbon content of charcoal can easily be as low as 60 wt.%. The yield of charcoal is also low, with values below 25 wt.% of dry wood feed. This means that significant quantities of by-products are generated in the process with little or no commercial value. Modifications in the carbonization process are needed to improve efficiency, charcoal quality, and environmental acceptance to sustain this activity in regions where it still represents vital income related to wood-waste management.

Assessment of Charcoal Production and Its Impact on Deforestation and Environment in Borgu Local Government Area of Niger State, Nigeria

Commercial charcoal production is gradually becoming one of the major sources of sustenance and currently plays a major role in promoting entrepreneurial development in Borgu Local Government Area of Niger State. The study was carried out to assess charcoal production and its impact on deforestation and environment in the study area. Data for the study were generated from a structured questionnaire administered to charcoal producers in the study area. Data obtained revealed that majority (83%) were male with 56% within the age class of 21-40, majority (67%) were married and about (51%) attained primary education. Majority of the producers (82%) used traditional earth mound kiln method for charcoal production and about 56% of the producers obtained their raw material from free area. Most preferred tree species for charcoal production was Prosopis africana and accounted for 61%. Loss of biodiversity ranked 1st as regards impact of charcoal production on deforestation and environment in the study area, closely followed by forest degradation and soil degradation respectively. This study will enable forestry policy makers, charcoal producers, and farmers in the study area to be better informed about the implications of charcoal production on deforestation and environment and seek innovative means and ways to combat its menace.

Factor effecting the sustainable income generation of the value added products of local fishery in Ranong Province, Thailand

The study objective was to check the impact of personal characteristics, financial constraints and fish processing methods on the sustainable income generation of the value added products of local fishery in Ranong Province, Thailand. For this purpose, the data was collected from 80 fishermen from the Ranong province of Thailand which was analyzed from both of the statistics of descriptive and inferential. The key findings had shown that majority of the people 70 percent used traditional kiln for the processing of their fishes whereas 24 percent were using the fried fishes within the vegetable oil. It was also found that most of respondents were sourced their credits from their personal savings 46 percent, cooperatives 29 percent and from family and friends was 18 percent for the processing the fish activities and 7 percent from micro finance banks. The respondents had generated their income (gross profit) of THB 2247.80 from roasted fish, THB 1123.90 from dried fish, and THB1669.79 from fried fish. The regression model results had shown that respondent’s personal characteristics, constraints and processing methods had greater influence on the sustainable income generations.

Factor effecting the sustainable income generation of the value added products of local fishery in Ranong Province, Thailand

The study objective was to check the impact of personal characteristics, financial constraints and fish processing methods on the sustainable income generation of the value added products of local fishery in Ranong Province, Thailand. For this purpose, the data was collected from 80 fishermen from the Ranong province of Thailand which was analyzed from both of the statistics of descriptive and inferential. The key findings had shown that majority of the people 70 percent used traditional kiln for the processing of their fishes whereas 24 percent were using the fried fishes within the vegetable oil. It was also found that most of respondents were sourced their credits from their personal savings 46 percent, cooperatives 29 percent and from family and friends was 18 percent for the processing the fish activities and 7 percent from micro finance banks. The respondents had generated their income (gross profit) of THB 2247.80 from roasted fish, THB 1123.90 from dried fish, and THB1669.79 from fried fish. The regression model results had shown that respondent’s personal characteristics, constraints and processing methods had greater influence on the sustainable income generations.

The Eastern Mediterranean Charcoal Industry: Air Pollution Prevention by the Implementation of a New Ecological Retort System

AbstractEarth kilns are still used for charcoal production in the Eastern Mediterranean and worldwide. Until 2016, around 1,600 tons of charcoal were produced in Israel and the Palestinian territories in about 400 traditional earth kilns that were operated in about the same manner for the last 400 years. The intense air pollution caused by this indigenous practice resulted in higher mortality rates among the workers and the population living close to the charcoal production sites. The air pollution was found to migrate beyond 50 km, causing cross‐boundary pollution in Jordan. Since the charcoal production industry processes surplus wood into solid fuel, which is used for heating and cooking, it was imperative to shift this industry to a new type of non‐polluting charcoal production system. Upgrading this industry to 21st century standards became possible through a combined effort by Israeli researchers and Palestinian manufacturers in the development and implementation of a new ecological retort system (ERS). Comparing the ERS to the old earth kilns suggests that the ERS produces charcoal without emitting air pollution, the wood‐to‐charcoal transformation efficiency is about 10% higher in the ERS and the process duration is half a day versus about 3 weeks in a traditional kiln. Generally, ERS is about two orders of magnitude more productive than the traditional earth kilns. The ERS combines a simple operational scheme and higher charcoal yield than a traditional kiln, leading to an increase in the revenue to the charcoal makers as well as through byproducts with economic value such as electric energy and wood vinegar. These advantages with the transition to the ERS system can ensure a more efficient and cleaner operation of this indigenous local industry.

Material characterization of pagerjurang clay as a raw material for pottery

Various functional and decorative pottery articles are produced of Pagerjurang, Klaten. The articles are made of raw material which are processed, shaped, dried, and burned in traditional kilns. In this study, a raw material of Pagerjurang Clay was characterized using XRD (X-ray Diffractometer) and SEM/EDX (Scanning Electron Microscope-Energy Dispersive X-ray). The results showed that Pagerjurang Clay was contained bentonite (24,87 %), quartz (37.08 %), feldspar (9.46 %), and illite (28.57 %), that consist silica 46.51% (w/w) and alumina 17.34 % (w/w), respectively. Pagerjurang Clay is red-browns color; very fine size; easy to break while dry, but very tough and sticky while wet; and easily made into the desired shape and elastic (not easily to be broken)

Handmade Traditional Kiln Clay Bricks from Tamilnadu, India: Mineralogy, Temperature Effect and Mechanical Analysis

This work shows the changes in properties of industrial clay bricks collected from the traditional kiln situated at bank of Cauvery, Tamilnadu, India. Samples of local raw clay material already in use for the production of bricks and industrially produced fired brick materials were characterized by combined multi-analytical techniques to determine the relationships among chemical, mineralogical, textural and mechanical properties. FTIR absorption spectra of re-fired industrial clay bricks to different temperatures in air in the laboratory supply information about type of clay mineral presence, its original firing temperature and firing atmosphere. The minerals like quartz, plagioclase (albite or anorthite) and orthoclase were identified using XRD. In order to study the quality of the bricks they were submitted to mechanical analysis such as compressive strength, flexural rupture strength, water absorption, porosity and bulk density. The mechanical analysis reveals that when laboratory re-firing temperature exceeds the original firing temperature of industrial bricks, the compressive strength, flexural rupture strength and bulk density increases, whereas water absorption and porosity values decreases. The results showed that there is a drastic variation in the quality of the bricks collected from different parts of the same kiln.

Comparative study of Bacteriological Contents of Commercially Smoked Fish and Aseptically Smoked Fish sold in Awka and Environs, Anambra State Nigeria

The study was carried out to determine the bacteriological contents of smoked fish sold in Awka markets and environs. A total number of 80 samples of smoked and frozen fishes were purchased from three different markets in Awka and environs. 60 smoked fish and 20 frozen fish of four different species of panla, sardine, mackerel and catfish 15each and 5 each respectively. The samples were collected labeled appropriately and kept in sterile polyethylene bags and were taken to the microbiology laboratory of Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka and Anambra State Polytechnic, Mgbakwu for microbial analysis, biochemical and molecular characterization were used for identification of bacteria and fungi isolates. The frozen fishes were taken to fishery department of Anambra State Polytechnic, Mgbakwu for smoking; the fishes were aseptically smoked using traditional kiln and oven drying method. Nutrient agar, Sabouraud dextrose agar, Salmonella shigella agar, Eosin methylene blue agar and Mannitol egg yolk polymyxin (MYP) agar were used for isolation of organisms. The isolated organisms are Bacillus spp, Staphylococcus Saprophiticus, Enterobacter spp., Staphylococcus aureus, Eschericia coli, KlebsiellaAerogenes. Delftiatsuruhatensis, Proteus mirabilis, Comamonas thiooxydans, Stenotrophomonas maltophilia, Crocinitomicaceae bacterium, Klebsiella pneumonia, Micrococcus spp. the fungi isolated are Aspergillus fumigate, Aspergillusoryzae, Fusarium spp. Mucor, Rhizopus sp.Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Penicillum spp. the total viable counts (TVC inCFU/g) of smoked mackerel, sardine, panla and catfish ranges from 1.7x102to 40.3x102 , 0.6x102-66x102, 11x102-98x102, 2.5x102 -54x102respectively. TVC (CFU/g) of fungi isolates from catfish ranges from 10x102to 33x102 TVC (CFU/g). In aseptically smoked fishno organism was isolated from fish samples expect in smoked and oven dried panla fish. Their TVC ranges from 0.2x102-0.8x102.The findings indicates that smoked fish sold in Awka markets and environs are all contaminated, proper awareness should be done to educate the fish vendors on proper and hygienic methods of processing and selling their products