Traditional Gender Role Beliefs Research Articles

Individual factors and cisgender college students' attitudes and behaviors toward transgender individuals.

The present study is one of few to investigate both anti-trans discrimination and anti-trans prejudice. It examined four individual factors (religiosity; political beliefs; affiliation with LGBTQ [lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer] people; gender role beliefs) through a lens of hetero-cis-normativity to understand their association with anti-trans attitudes and reported behaviors. Using a sample of 302 cisgender college students from across the United States, hierarchical multiple regressions on bootstrap samples were used to analyze how these factors are associated with anti-trans attitudes and behaviors. More liberal political beliefs, affiliation with more LGBTQ friends and family members, and less traditional gender role beliefs were related to more positive attitudes toward transgender people. Less traditional gender role beliefs and more positive attitudes were associated with more positive reported behaviors toward transgender individuals. Interventions designed to challenge traditional gender role beliefs and approximate affiliation with LGBTQ persons may be most effective to reduce pervasive hetero-cis-normative prejudice and discrimination within schools.

Synergistic and additive effects of social dominance orientation and right-wing authoritarianism on attitudes toward socially stigmatized groups

Research has consistently linked social dominance orientation (SDO) and right-wing authoritarianism (RWA) to numerous forms of prejudice, but little research has examined how these personality and ideological variables interact in their associations with various attitudinal outcomes. The present study explored the interactions of SDO and RWA in predicting a wide range of social attitudes (i.e., modern racism, modern sexism, traditional gender role beliefs) and feeling thermometers toward racial/ethnic minorities, women, and other socially stigmatized groups in a cross-sectional survey of 1244 U.S. college students (Mage = 21.54; SD = 5.17). Moderation analyses found significant independent associations of SDO, RWA, or both with all attitudinal or ideological outcome variables. We found a hypothesized synergistic interaction of SDO x RWA in predicting attitudes toward women scores, but the results did not support other hypothesized SDO x RWA interactions. Findings provide further support of the Dual Process Model and suggest that SDO and RWA may employ largely independent pathways in predicting attitudes toward marginalized groups.

How individual gender role beliefs, organizational gender norms, and national gender norms predict parents’ work-Family guilt in Europe

ABSTRACT The guilt that mothers feel about the time and energy that they invest in work instead of their family is often proposed to be an important reason for why mothers ‘opt-out’ the career track. We sought to understand if mothers indeed experience more work-family guilt than fathers and how this relates to both their own gender role beliefs and organizational gender norms across nine European countries. Analyses draw on the European Social Workforce Survey, with data from 2619 working parents nested in 110 organizations in 9 European countries. Results showed that when fathers and mothers work more than a full-time week (a) fathers with traditional gender role beliefs felt less guilty, and (b) especially mothers working in an organization with low support for the parent role of working fathers felt guilty. Explorative analyses showed no effect of national gender norms on gender differences in guilt. Our results are beneficial for organizations and policy makers by showing that guilt in working mothers can be reduced by developing egalitarian organizational norms, in which there is support for the parent role of mothers and fathers, potentially helping mothers to focus on their careers alongside their families.

Sexual Violence Experience Among Nigerian Girls and Young Women: What Are the Roles of Early Sexual Debut, Multiple Sex Partnerships, and Traditional Gender Role Beliefs?

In Nigeria, one in four females has experienced some form of sexual abuse. Therefore, it is imperative to examine risk factors associated with sexual violence victimization of Nigerian girls and young women to identify targets for prevention and help stakeholders prioritize response efforts. The present article focuses on secondary data analyses of 1,766 females, aged 13 to 24, interviewed in the population-based 2014 Nigeria Violence Against Children Survey. The outcome of interest is lifetime sexual violence (LSV). Several potential predictors were explored: beliefs about gender roles related to sex, early sexual debut (aged <16 years), and multiple sex partners in the past 12 months. Other risk factors assessed were age, ethnicity, religion, education, marital status, and employment. Logistic regression analyses estimated adjusted odds ratios (AORs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs). Results revealed that females who endorsed beliefs about patriarchal sexual decision-making (AOR = 2.1, 95% CI = [1.28, 3.32]) or ever attended school (AOR = 2.4, 95% CI = [1.35, 4.34]) were more likely to report experiencing LSV. Prevention programs that target traditional norm beliefs about gender and sexuality have the potential to influence sexual violence in Nigeria. In addition, school attendance may expose females to potential perpetrators. Thus, to prevent sexual violence of girls who attend school, implementing safety measures may be beneficial for protecting them while in and traveling to/from school.

Is Low Power Associated With Submission During Marital Conflict? Moderating Roles of Gender and Traditional Gender Role Beliefs

Lower power during marital interactions predicts greater aggression by men, but no research has identified women’s response to lower power. We tested whether women who experienced lower situational power during conflict exhibited greater submission, especially if they held traditional gender role beliefs and thus accepted structural gender differences in power. Newlywed couples (Time 1, N = 204 couples) completed questionnaires and discussed an area of conflict 3 times over 3 years. Individuals who perceived lower power during couples’ discussions evidenced greater submission, but this effect was more pronounced for wives, especially wives who held traditional gender role beliefs. Among those with traditional gender role beliefs, greater submission together with lower power predicted lower marital adjustment over time. These results highlight that the low power–submission link, and associated implications for marital adjustment, need to be evaluated in the context of power-relevant situations, gender, and broader power-related beliefs about gender roles.

Public Attitudes about Transgender Participation in Sports: The Roles of Gender, Gender Identity Conformity, and Sports Fandom

We examine the roles of gender, gender attitudes, and interest in sports on public attitudes about transgender people’s participation in athletics. Using a representative survey of 1020 adults in the United States from 2015 and after controlling for a variety of demographic, political, and attitudinal factors, we find that women, consistent with their gender identity, are more supportive than men of transgender athletes participating in sports. In addition, we find that individuals who hold traditional gender role beliefs and those who have greater gender identity conformity with their gender are less likely to support transgender athletes’ participation. The effects of gender identity conformity and beliefs in traditional gender roles are also conditioned by respondents’ gender. Sports fans are more likely to oppose transgender athletes’ participation, and female sports fans have views that resemble those of male sports fans. Finally, respondents who have contact with transgender people and those with stronger egalitarian attitudes are more favorable toward transgender participation whereas those espousing high moral traditionalism are more opposed. Our findings highlight areas of support and resistance to transgender athletes, and our work might be helpful to policymakers, as well as advocates, who promote inclusion.

Longitudinal associations between marianismo beliefs and acculturative stress among Latina immigrants during initial years in the United States.

Acculturative stress is commonly experienced among Latinx immigrants in the United States who may feel pressured to maintain their heritage cultural norms and beliefs and/or adopt norms and beliefs of the dominant culture. The present study examined longitudinal relations between acculturative stress and endorsement of traditional Latina gender role beliefs (i.e., marianismo). We determined strength of the relations and temporal precedence of acculturative stress and endorsement of marianismo across 3 time points during participants' initial 3 years in the United States using a random intercept cross-lagged panel model. Participants were 530 Latina young adult women (ages 18-23) recruited from Miami-Dade County, Florida. Results suggested that acculturative stress levels at Time 1 positively predicted endorsement of the Family Pillar belief at Time 2, but acculturative stress levels at Time 2 negatively predicted the Virtuous and Chaste and Subordinate to Others beliefs at Time 3. In terms of marianismo beliefs predicting acculturative stress levels over time, the Virtuous and Chaste belief at Time 1 positively predicted acculturative stress at Time 2, and the Silencing Self to Maintain Harmony belief at Time 2 positively predicted acculturative stress at Time 3. Findings suggest that the Family Pillar belief, or feeling responsibility for the family's unity, may be protective against acculturative stress over time. Endorsing certain gender role beliefs (i.e., Virtuous and Chaste, Subordinate to Others) may lead to greater acculturative stress, and Latina young adult women experiencing acculturative stress may alter their endorsement of marianismo beliefs in an attempt to resolve culturally conflicting stress experienced after immigration. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Men, Chronic Pain, and Prescription Pain Medication Use: The Role of Gender Role Beliefs in a Longitudinal Moderated Mediation Model.

Although past research has established that men with chronic pain are more likely to misuse prescription pain medications in a myriad of ways compared with women, little is known about men's medication use in the context of their gender role beliefs. The aim of the present study was to examine the role of men's domestic gender role beliefs on their use of prescription pain medication for chronic pain. Using a nationally representative data set with 304 men with chronic pain, this study examined a longitudinal moderated mediation model in which pain interference mediates the longitudinal relationship between somatic amplification and prescription pain medication use, with domestic gender role beliefs as a moderator of the aforementioned mediated relationship. Results indicated a significant moderated mediation model in which pain interference fully mediated the relationship between somatic amplification and prescription pain medication use, with men's domestic gender role beliefs moderating this mediated relationship. Specifically, domestic gender role beliefs moderated the relationship between pain interference and prescription pain medication use. Men with higher levels of traditional domestic gender role beliefs strengthened the mediated relationship, contributing to increased prescription pain medication use. These findings suggest that although men's perceptions of somatic stimuli through its perceived interference contribute to their medication use, the extent to which they consume prescription pain medication depends on their beliefs in domestic gender roles during chronic pain.

Foodie Calls: When Women Date Men for a Free Meal (Rather Than a Relationship)

A foodie call occurs when a person, despite a lack of romantic attraction to a suitor, chooses to go on a date to receive a free meal. The present study examines predictors of a deceptive form of the foodie call in the context of male–female dates: when a woman purposefully misrepresents her romantic interest in a man to dine at his expense. In two studies, we surveyed women regarding their foodie call behavior, dark triad personality traits, traditional gender role beliefs, and online dating history. We found 23–33% of women surveyed had engaged in a foodie call. In Study 1, dark triad and traditional gender role beliefs significantly predicted previous foodie call behavior and its perceived acceptability. Study 2 employed fuller measures and suggested again that dark triad traits predicted foodie calls and their perceived acceptability.

Gender-Related Ideological and Structural Macrosocial Factors Associated With Intimate Partner Violence Against European Women

Intimate partner violence against women (IPVAW) is investigated mostly at the individual level, which ignores the role of macrosocial variables and possible interactions between them. We explored how two ideological gender-related macrosocial factors (traditional gender role beliefs and attitudes toward gender equality) and one structural gender-related macrosocial factor (the economic Gender Equality Index) are associated with physical, psychological, and sexual IPVAW in Europe. We examined their interactions with individual-level factors in predicting IPVAW. Secondary analysis ( N = 30,284 heterosexual women) of the 2015 European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights’ Violence Against Women survey revealed that 26.1% of women in Europe reported at least one act of physical, psychological, or sexual violence. Generalized linear mixed models analysis revealed that individual-level factors (women’s education, childhood victimization, equal say about income, partner’s alcohol consumption, and an aggressive partner) were associated with IPVAW. Adding the Eurobarometer of Gender Equality ( N = 28 countries) and the Gender Equality Index ( N = 28 countries), attitudes more favorable to gender equality were related to lower rates of psychological victimization; more traditional gender role beliefs predicted higher rates of sexual victimization. Ideological gender-related macrofactors played an important role in cross-level interactions with individual-level factors. To reduce the rates of IPVAW victimization, clinicians, educators, and policy makers need to focus on individual predictors and macrofactors to promote societal attitudes toward equality and change traditional gender role socialization. Additional online materials for this article are available on PWQ’s website at http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/suppl/10.1177/0361684319839367

Traditional Gender Role Beliefs and Career Attainment in STEM: A Gendered Story?

Gender role beliefs (i.e., beliefs about gender-specific responsibilities) predict one’s educational and occupational aspirations and choices (Eccles et al., 1983; Schoon and Parsons, 2002). Focusing on STEM careers, we aim to examine the extent to which traditional work/family related gender role beliefs (TGRB) in adolescence predict within and across gender differences in subsequent educational and STEM occupational attainment in adulthood. Using longitudinal data from the Michigan Study of Adolescent and Adult Life Transitions (N = 744; 58% female), participants’ educational attainment and their occupations were assessed at age 42. Their occupations were then categorized into three categories: traditional STEM-related careers in the physical sciences, mathematics, engineering, and technology (PMET); life sciences (e.g., health sciences, LS); and non-STEM. For females, TGRB at age 16/18 significantly predicted lower educational attainment as well as a lower likelihood to be in PMET-related occupations in comparison to non-STEM occupations – controlling for their own educational attainment. TGRB also predicted a higher likelihood to be in LS-related in comparison to PMET-related occupations. No significant associations were found for males. However, patterns of findings for males were similar to those of females. TGRB also mediated across gender differences in educational and PMET-related occupational attainment. Findings reveal TGRB to be one underlying psychological factor influencing gender disparity in educational and STEM occupational attainment.

The Effects of Media Use and Traditional Gender Role Beliefs on Tolerance of Homosexuality in China

Using the Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS) data collected in 2015, this study investigates the effects of traditional media use and Internet use on tolerance of homosexuality, and the extent to which traditional gender role beliefs can moderate these effects. The results show that, while Internet use had a positive effect on tolerance of homosexuality, exposure to traditional media was likely to inhibit such tolerance. Moreover, traditional gender role beliefs are found to be able to undermine the liberalizing effect of Internet use on tolerance of homosexuality. The implications of the findings for understanding attitudes toward homosexuality in China are discussed.

Religiosity or ideology? On the individual differences predictors of sexism

The present set of studies investigated the role of both religiosity and social-ideological attitudes in the prediction of various forms of sexist and gender-related attitudes. Hierarchical regression analyses on data collected in three countries (i.e., two heterogeneous adult samples from Turkey and the Netherlands, and two student samples from Belgium; combined N = 964) revealed that although individual differences in religiosity did predict traditional gender role beliefs and sexism (towards both women and men), its impact was limited compared to the impact of individual differences in social-ideological attitudes (i.e., social dominance orientation and particularly authoritarianism). In the discussion, we argue that sexism primarily relates to individual differences in peoples' perspective on the social world, and that religiosity explains little additional variance.

Gender Nonconformity Is Perceived Differently for Cisgender and Transgender Targets

The present research examined the role gender non-conformity plays in attitudes toward transgender people. Study 1 with 232 U.S college students focused on attitudes toward female targets; Study 2 with 217 U.S. college students focused on male targets; and Study 3 with 462 mTurk workers directly compared attitudes toward female and male targets. In all three studies, participants read a vignette depicting either a transgender or cisgender target who presents as either gender conforming or gender nonconforming. In all three studies, we found that gender nonconforming targets and transgender targets were perceived as more threatening to the distinction between men and women, and in two of the studies, we found that gender conforming transgender targets were more threatening than conforming cisgender targets. We also found that anti-transgender prejudice, traditional gender role beliefs (Studies 1 and 2), and biological gender essentialism (Study 3) moderated these effects. Transgender targets who conform to the traditional binary gender role associated with their gender expression are perceived as transgressing distinct binary gender boundaries, which may be threatening because “passing” transgender individuals are harder to detect as transgressors and because their “passing” challenges the belief that gender is biologically essential and immutable. Furthermore, as anti-transgender prejudice, traditional gender role beliefs, and gender essentialist beliefs increase, liking decreased and threat increased for transgender and gender nonconforming targets. Working to alter gender essentialist beliefs may be a route to reducing anti-transgender prejudice.

Understanding change in violence-related attitudes for adolescents in relationship education

Relationship education (RE) targets common correlates of adolescent dating violence (ADV), such as gender role beliefs (GRB) and DV acceptance (DVA), yet few studies have evaluated the influence of RE on GRB and DVA and none have considered participants' sociodemographic characteristics. Using a sample of adolescents from the United States (Mage = 15.66 years; 58% female), this study examined pre- and post-test GRB and DVA scores of RE participants (n = 1645) compared to nonparticipants (n = 522) and explored the differential and combined effects of participants' sociodemographic characteristics on change. Black males held the most traditional GRB at pre-test, but became more egalitarian after programming. RE participation also appeared to act as a buffer against an increase in DVA for females, but not males. Study findings provide a more complex picture of the role of RE in shifting beliefs and attitudes associated with ADV and provide implications for programming.

The Motivated Cognitive Basis of Transphobia: The Roles of Right-Wing Ideologies and Gender Role Beliefs

Transgender individuals challenge the traditional assumption that an individual’s gender identity is permanently determined by their assigned sex at birth. Perceiving ambiguity surrounding indeterminate gender identities associated with transgender individuals may be especially disturbing for those who generally dislike ambiguity and have preference for order and predictability, that is, for people scoring higher on Need for Closure (NFC). We tested the associations between NFC and transphobia in two studies using community samples from the United Kingdom (n = 231) and Belgium (n = 175), and we examined whether right-wing ideological attitudes and traditional gender role beliefs mediated these relationships. Confirming our expectations, we found that NFC was significantly associated with transphobia through both stronger adherence to social conventions and obedience to authorities (i.e., right-wing authoritarianism) and stronger endorsements of traditional gender roles in the UK and Belgium, as well as through stronger preferences for hierarchy and social inequality (i.e., social dominance orientation) in the UK. Our results suggest that transgender individuals are more likely to be targets of prejudice by those higher in NFC at least partly due to the strong preference for preserving societal traditions and the resistance to a perceived disruption of traditional gender norms. Hence, attempts to reduce transphobia might be especially challenging among those high in NFC. Nevertheless, prejudice-reducing interventions could incorporate techniques that satisfy epistemic needs for predictability, certainty, and simple structure which may have higher chances of success among high NFC individuals.

His, hers, or theirs? Coparenting after the birth of a second child.

This study examined changes in coparenting after the birth of a second child. Mothers and fathers from 241 2-parent families reported on their spouses' coparenting cooperation and conflict with their firstborn children before (prenatal) and 4 months after the birth of a second child. Parents completed prenatal questionnaires on their gender-role attitudes, marital satisfaction, and firstborn children's temperamental characteristics. Parents also reported on their second-born infants' temperaments at 1 month of age. Coparenting conflict increased across the transition, and cooperation decreased. Couples in which fathers reported greater marital satisfaction were more cooperative 4 months after the second birth. Firstborns' difficult temperaments contributed to less cooperative coparenting by both parents. When mothers had more traditional gender-role beliefs, fathers engaged in more conflictual coparenting behavior, and when fathers had more traditional gender-role beliefs, mothers engaged in more conflictual coparenting behavior. Mothers, but not fathers, engaged in more coparenting conflict regarding the firstborn when both the firstborn and infant sibling had difficult temperaments. (PsycINFO Database Record

The social origins of gender differences in anticipated feelings of guilt and shame following delinquency

In this study, we investigate gender differences in adolescents’ anticipated feelings of guilt and shame for engaging in shoplifting and retaliatory violence. More specifically, we examine the extent to which interpersonal relations with parents and teachers, perceived peer delinquency and traditional gender role beliefs have different effects on levels of shame-guilt among males and females, and to what extent these variables mediate gender differences in shame-guilt. We use data collected in a sample of 852 adolescents in Genk, a multi-ethnic city in the north-east of Belgium. Our findings confirm those of earlier research indicating that females experience a considerably higher threat of shame-guilt for engaging in delinquency than males. Factors explaining males’ and females’ anticipated shame-guilt feelings are similar in the case of shoplifting, but different in the case of violence. Differential exposure to peer delinquency and parental follow-up partially mediate the effect of gender on shame-guilt for engaging in shoplifting. Among males, endorsement of traditional masculinity predicts lower levels of shame-guilt for engaging in shoplifting and violence. Among females, endorsement of traditional femininity predicts lower levels of shame-guilt for engaging in shoplifting, but has no effect on shame-guilt for engaging in violence. We discuss the implications of our findings for understanding the contribution of shame-guilt to the social control of delinquency across gender.

Examining ethnic differences in parental rejection of LGB youth sexual identity.

Upward of 70% of lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) youth experience some degree of parental rejection of their sexual identity, which is problematic in light of research documenting links between parental rejection and psychological difficulties in LGB youth. Additionally, emerging research suggests that ethnic minority LGB youth may be at greater risk to experience parental rejection than ethnic majority LGB youth. However, this research is inconclusive and has significant gaps. The current study is one of the first to include a multiethnic sample of LGB youth and their parents to investigate how ethnicity may be related to parental rejection. Specifically, the current study examined ethnic differences in parental rejection as well as in intrapersonal variables (i.e., homonegativity and traditional gender role beliefs), which are thought to be related both to ethnicity and parental rejection. Additionally, indirect effects of ethnicity on parental rejection through homonegativity and traditional gender role beliefs were examined. Participants included 90 parents (ages 32-63) and their 90 LGB children (ages 15-24). Fifty-nine percent of the sample were ethnic minority. Significant ethnic differences were found in parental rejection and homonegativity, but not in traditional gender role beliefs. Homonegativity was found to fully mediate the relation between ethnicity and parental rejection. These results provide important information on why ethnic minority parents, in general, may have a more difficult time accepting their LGB children than ethnic majority parents. (PsycINFO Database Record

Gendered Ableism: Media Representations and Gender Role Beliefs’ Effect on Perceptions of Disability and Sexuality

This study explored the impact of advertisements featuring individuals either with or without a physical disability on attitudes towards sexuality and disability. In addition, the authors sought to determine whether there is a relationship between these attitudes and endorsement of traditional versus egalitarian gender role beliefs. A total of 707 online participants completed the Gender Role Belief Scale, then rated a series of ads featuring individuals with or without a disability (or served as a no ad control), and completed the Attitudes toward Sexuality Questionnaire and Perceptions of Sexuality Scale. Results demonstrated a complex relationship between gender role beliefs and exposure to advertisements on attitudes towards the sexuality of women and men with physical disabilities. As hypothesized, the endorsement of traditional gender role beliefs was related to more negative attitudes towards the sexuality of women with physical disabilities.