Traditional Family Farms Research Articles

Diversity of vegetable landraces in the Pampa biome of Brazil and Uruguay: utilization and conservation strategies.

The historical meeting between originally American people, European colonizers, and slaved peoples from Africa in the biome Pampa in South Brazil and Uruguay involved a cultural syncretism and a great genetic diversity of landraces of cultivated species. Genetic richness evolved by selection and cultural processes in response to different environments, cultural backgrounds, and needs. This review summarized the knowledge on vegetable and maize landraces in South Brazilian and Uruguayan Pampa biome, to design a strategy towards the rediscovery, conservation, and sustainable use. Landraces diversity maintained in situ and ex situ is described, specific case studies are presented, and the main problems and tools towards landraces re-valorization are discussed. We show that traditional family farming systems maintain diverse vegetable species, mainly squashes (Cucurbita spp.), sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), beans (Phaseolus spp.), onion (Allium cepa), peppers (Capsicum spp.), tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), next to leafy vegetables and maize, among others. We propose the priority of systematic surveys as a basis for monitoring genetic erosion, increasing complementariness between in situ and ex situ conservation, and implementing sustainable conservation and utilization. The case studies highlight genetic diversity within each cultivated species, with different crop physiological responses; disease resistances, different quality traits and associated uses, from animal feeding in maize to a range of culinary uses linked to traditional culture in maize and vegetable species, and ornamental uses of specific Capsicum and Cucurbita. Some landraces were the basis for breeding, where improved cultivars allowed the competitiveness of landrace germplasm in the markets. Renewed industrialized products allowed the competitive and sustainable use of Capsicum landraces in Brazilian farmers communities. Strategies towards in situ conservation improvements and valorization are discussed; emphasizing the role played by agroecology, community seed banks and custodian farmers, participatory plant breeding, promotion of landraces specialties among consumers, and the need of research and capacity building, among others. Farmers' participation in the decisions is a key factor, along with the academia and the public sector. Landraces and associated knowledge are treasures to be used to benefit from farmers to consumers, directing the course of agriculture towards sustainable directions.

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Researching, promoting and protecting Welsh toponyms – Challenges and possible solutions

Place names are stepping-stones to our past, connecting us to our ancestors. Once severed, geographical, social and cultural links between local people and place and names cannot be restored. Documentary and mapping research has been conducted in parts of the largely upland, a protected area of Snowdonia National Park. A new methodology reveals a palimpsest of toponyms in Welsh rural landscapes since 1284 and uncovers previously concealed history and untold narratives of Welsh heritage. Toponyms in Wales are under threat. Social and economic changes impose adverse effects on the traditional family farm, relic farm buildings and linear landscape features such as stone walls, banks and woodlands and field patterns. A consequence of this is the reduced use of toponyms. Tourists, walkers, climbers, and divers contribute to this erosion unintentionally. They often translate toponyms literally or make up their own (usually non-Welsh) names, for rock climbs, lakes, peaks, and caves that are considered too difficult to pronounce. These newly invented names quickly replace the original toponyms, often reinforced by guidebooks and maps published in English. New housing estates, homes and tourist businesses frequently adopt English names which are not in keeping with traditional visual signage in rural areas. The Welsh Place Name Society (WPNS) formed in 2013 is a grass roots and academic inclusive organisation which provided robust evidence to the Welsh Government during the consultation stage of the Historic Environment Bill 2016. However, it was decided not to give place names legal protection, unlike historic monuments, country houses and bats. The Office of The Commissioner for Welsh has a well-established panel of experts who determine standardised spellings for towns and villages. Their on-line list provides a useful reference for organisations and individuals, but this list and others have no legal standing. This paper discusses the critical legal issue of protecting place names in Wales and illustrates how the Society has worked alongside organisations and local communities in Wales to promote and defend place names.

Gender and entrepreneurship in the formation of family farms during the postsocialist transformation in Hungary

ABSTRACT This paper explores how women and men in commodity producer family farms that emerged during the post-socialist transition in Hungary negotiated gendered and entrepreneurial identities within the emergent gender regime balancing between three entangled and conflicting processes related to globalization, retraditionalisation and state socialist legacies. During this period, the agricultural production structure polarized between units with rapid land concentration and intensified commodity production and small-scale subsistence farmers. Gender dynamics showed to have had great importance for how farms could position themselves on the capital accumulation trajectory. The study is based on a selection from fifty life-history interviews carried out with farm families on the commodification trajectory during the post-socialist transition in rural Hungary between 2000 and 2004 (the years prior to Hungary joining the EU), among which a number of farm families were revisited after three years of the first occasion. Four major types of family farms were identified based on how they (un)done the gender entrepreneurship nexus while reconciling production and care: traditional family farm, semi-equal partnerships in joint farms, feminized one-woman farm, masculinized one-man farm. Semi-equal partnerships in joint farms moved towards different directions over time: farms with separate spheres adjusting to care, masculinization, woman-led joint farm with care mission out-sourced, and farms with dual crises of care and enterprise. The demands for reproducing family farms under globalized market pressure assumed the mobilization of family labour. Women’s inputs were of great importance, while their responsibility to organise care prevailed, putting extra pressure on their health and work burden.

Direct payments and on-farm employment: Evidence from a spatial regression discontinuity design

Abstract Direct payments are regarded as a suitable instrument to safeguard jobs in the agricultural sector. However, empirical findings to date do not unambiguously support this expectation. We further empirically investigate this research question on dairy farms with a focus on family work. Using a spatial regression discontinuity design, we rely upon selection on unobservables assumptions. The Swiss direct payments system creates a discontinuous jump near the border of agricultural production zones for the amount of public subsidies a farm receives. Using two-stage least squares (TSLS) to estimate the policy-relevant effect, we find that an additional CHF 50,000 can generate a job for a female family worker in the dairy sector. Male employment is not affected. These results show that direct payments can safeguard traditional family farming.

Do Pharaohs’ cattle still graze the Nile Valley? Genetic characterization of the Egyptian Baladi cattle breed

Egyptian Baladi cattle is one of the few native taurine breeds which remain in the original domestication area of Bos taurus, the Nile Valley (Upper Egypt). Apart from its evolutive relevance, the breed is well-adapted and integrated into the traditional family farming systems, with great potentialities for local sustainable rural development. The diversity and structure of the Baladi population were assessed using 28 genetic microsatellite markers. Within and between-breeds diversity, its relations with other cattle breeds, and an inference on its origin and evolution, were analyzed. Results reported high levels of diversity, with an average number of alleles (Na) of 11.39, observed heterozygosity (Ho) of 0.68, and expected heterozygosity (He) of 0.75. The studied population was in Hardy-Weinberg disequilibrium, which could be ascribed to its internal structure. The comparison between breeds using factorial correspondence analysis, Reynolds genetic distance evaluation, and genetic structure analysis suggested slight influences of Bos indicus. Upper Egypt’s rural communities have preserved the Baladi cattle breed, protecting this historical and biological heritage against the constant and indiscriminate introduction of exotic genetic resources along the history of development of the breed. Developing and implementing conservation and breeding programs is crucial for the preservation and improvement of the breed. HIGHLIGHTS Baladi cattle breed is a well-defined and highly diverse breed. Higher diversity levels are found in northern and central governorates. A clear geographical cluster is formed around the Nile Delta. Baladi cattle may be reminiscent of the ancient ‘pharaoh’ cattle. Assiut’s population acted as the most ancestral population nucleus.

‘Hell or high water’: Good farming and environmental care as contested practices in the implementation of nitrate vulnerable zones in Wales

This paper explores how dairy farmers attempt to navigate prescribed principles and fixed practices of environmental care in the context of Nitrate Vulnerable Zones (NVZ) and the EU Water Framework Directive. In contrast to agri-environmental schemes, farm-level compliance with NVZ regulations often involves substantial investment costs for the farmer. Drawing on a case study of Wales, we consider why controversial practices of nitrate management exist on farms and how, through a combined narrative of vulnerability and care, certain practices are legitimised. Such narratives seemingly involve an attempt to redefine ‘good farmer’ identities within conventional agriculture, whereby the act and declared commitment to administering ‘good care’ becomes separated from a responsibility for the outcomes of some farming practices. In exploring why such a limited framing of the good farmer and good care are being pursued, we look at the role of environmental regulation (specifically NVZ regulation) in shaping this response. We conclude that a distancing of responsibility for the outcomes of poor care does not, necessarily, equate with an actual absence of caring about, or a failure to care for the local environment. Moreover, rather than symbolising a logic of being resistant to change, for many farmers it represents a perceived inability to change. Such is the growing disconnect between conventional systems of farming practice and the environmental state of many traditional family farms that, rather than being at ‘cross-roads’, these farmers have instead seemingly reached a ‘dead end’. Our analysis is supported by three data sets (compiled between 2016 and 2018): responses to a questionnaire sent to 1000 farmers in Wales; semi-structured interviews with industry stakeholders (combined with farm site visits in the case of farmer respondents); and, analysis of responses (n = 258) to a Welsh Government-led national public consultation on the proposed expansion of the regulation of NVZs in Wales.

Mapeamento das classes do cadastro ambiental rural (CAR) De imóveis rurais familiares e não familiares nas chapadas e grotas do alto Jequitinhonha-MG

Com o avanço da tecnologia da informação e o advento das geotecnologias, quanto maior o número de informações globais, regionais e locais, maior é a possibilidade de sucesso do planejamento. o presente artigo teve como objetivo sobrepor informações dos imóveis rurais, áreas de vegetação preservada e nascentes em áreas da agricultura familiar e não familiar, na região das chapadas e grotas do Alto Jequitinhonha, utilizando como banco de dados as informações disponibilizadas pelo SICAR (Sistema Nacional de Cadastro Ambiental Rural), IBGE (Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatistica e informações topográficas fornecidas pelo SRTM. Para o processamento das informações foi utilizado software de geoprocessamento ArcGis 10.3. A sobreposição das informações se deu a partir das ferramentas do próprio software. Foi possivel que a região do Alto Jequitinhonha é uma região de agricultura familiar tradicional e numerosa, onde o relevo formado por chapadas e grotas determinou os diferentes processos de ocupação e uso dos solos na região. A chegada de grandes empreendimentos, principalmente o reflorestamento com eucalipto, alterou drasticamente a dinâmica da região, a partir dos dados do CAR foi possível observar as mudanças no uso e posse da terra, recursos hídricos e vegetação nativa.

A vision of the farming sector’s future: What is in there for farmers in the time of the Second Machine Age?

Recent technological advances both on the farm and in the lab are boosting not only the efficiency of modern farming but have made it also more independent from nature than ever before. Increasingly affordable and accessible new technologies are helping us to better understand and ‘manage’ nature and thus, for first time in history farming is becoming as any other industry – susceptible to specialisation and economies of scale. This in turn, besides increases in productivity and the minimum efficient scale, leads to fundamental organisational change, away from traditional family farms and towards corporate forms with the associated implications for employment and rural livelihoods. Recent evidence from the digitalisation in agriculture suggests that new technologies require developing capabilities in abstract and analytical skills substituting skills in routine tasks. However, this is not the end game for farmers; new partnerships between technology providers and agribusiness players emerge as digitalisation and connectivity become a strategic issue. Thus, while the first Industrial Revolution led to machines replacing ‘muscles’ the new Digital Revolution is leading to machines replacing ‘brains and souls’, and it may eventually end family farming as we know it.

Properties of Rennet Cheese Made from Whole and Skimmed Summer and Winter Milk on a Traditional Polish Dairy Farm.

Simple SummaryMilk from traditional family farms is a valuable raw material for cheese making. The aim of the study was to compare the textural and physicochemical characteristics, as well as the organoleptic properties, of soft rennet cheese from the milk of Polish Holstein–Friesian cows. The tests were carried out on 24 cheeses made from the bulk milk in the two production seasons: summer (July–September) and winter (January–March). The results indicate that both the season and the fat content of the milk affected the physicochemical (acidity, color) and rheological parameters (firmness and stickiness) of the cheese. What is more, the fat content of the milk had a more significant effect on the organoleptic parameters of the cheese than the season. In addition, low-fat cheeses received satisfactory organoleptic assessments, which indicates that they can serve as substitutes for full-fat cheeses for people looking for low-fat products.The aim of this study was to compare the rheological and physicochemical parameters, as well as the organoleptic properties, of soft rennet cheese made from whole and skimmed milk in different seasons on a traditional family farm. We analyzed milk from twenty Polish Holstein–Friesian cows for basic composition, number of somatic cells, acidity, and color in terms of the Comission Internationale de l’Eclairage (CIE) lightness*redness*yellowness (L*a*b*) system, and 24 cheeses in terms of texture, acidity, color in terms of the CIE L*a*b* system, and organoleptic parameters in summer and winter. We determined the effects of the season and the fat content of milk on the pH, titratable acidity, color, firmness, and stickiness of the cheese. Cheeses from summer milk showed greater acidification than those from winter milk (p ≤ 0.05). Skimmed milk cheeses from both seasons showed increased firmness and stickiness, and worse organoleptic characteristics, particularly in taste and consistency, than whole milk cheeses (p ≤ 0.05). The highest level of yellow (b*) was found in whole milk summer cheeses; those produced in winter were 16% less yellow. Milk from traditional family farms is a valuable raw ingredient for the production of soft, unripe rennet cheese. However, the variability of organoleptic characteristics related to the season should be taken into account in cheese production. Skimmed cheese can serve as an alternative to full-fat cheese, especially for people looking for low-fat products, regardless of the time of year.

Phenotypic characterization of domestic cavies (Cavia porcellus) in the agricultural zone of Haut-Katanga, Democratic Republic of Congo

&#x0D; This study was conducted with the aim of contributing to the characterization of zoo genetic resources for farm animals in the agricultural area of Haut Katanga. For this, 185 guinea pigs were sampled according to the snowball method from 117 households and whose weight parameter obtained from a balance and linear parameter obtained at the area of a measuring tape a description. The cavy was held immobile in a horizontal plane, and measurements were taken after locating landmarks on the surface of the animal's body. Qualitative parameters were collected by the visual method where the color of the coat was identified by direct observation under daylight (FAO, 2013; AU-IBAR, 2015). The main results showed that the location factor significantly influenced the majority of biometric characteristics while the sex factor had no significant effect on the measurements. The studied cavies had an angular conformation with the following average performances: weight 506.1 ± 149.9g; chest circumference 15.8 ± 3.0cm; body length 27.7 ± 3.2cm; thigh circumference 5.8 ± 0.9cm. Morphological characteristics indicate the presence of 6 main colors (white, cream, brown, grey, black and silver), from which several combinations are derived. The most frequent combinations are trichromic (White, black and brown) with 34.05%, followed by dichromic (White and brown: 18.38%). About 99.4% of the animals had black eyes. The hairs were soft (82.7%) and short (100%). PCA followed by an Ascending Hierarchical Classification (AHC) of these animals resulted in four genetic types; the first two types (type 1 and 2) have lower than average weights and resemble the guinea pigs of a (traditional) family farm, while the other two are semi-improved. Based on the coloring of the hair, these domestic cavies have a compound coat. These results show the existence of a great variability between the guinea pig populations as well as a diversity of rearing practices that requires monitoring for improvement, which constitutes an opportunity for genetic improvement of local guinea pigs.&#x0D;

Lessons in Resilience from the Maya-Achí

Lessons in Resilience from the Maya-Achí Nathan Einbinder In the united states, the covid−19 outbreak revealed the frailty of our social systems and institutions, along with the inequalities on which our so-called prosperity rests. The economy, whose strength is intimately tied to our (excessive) consumption, global trade, and the casino called Wall Street, fell into a state of collapse. With astonishing speed, millions of jobs and livelihoods disappeared. For many, it was their first time confronting the possibility of not being able to attain basic goods—notably food—for lack of financial resources, supply chain issues, or potential new restrictions. The uncertainty ignited fear and panic, along with serious questions over our path to modernity and the risks and deep vulnerabilities it has created. As an agroecologist, I am drawn to stories of resilience, particularly among individuals and communities whose survival has depended on their ingeniousness and perseverance. I recall the life histories of men and women like Cristóbal Osorio, an Indigenous Maya-Achí farmer who, at twenty-four years old, was violently displaced from his home along the Chixoy River in Guatemala and forced to live in hiding for two years, avoiding military ambushes and surviving off wild plants, bark, and insects. I contemplate the way he, like so many other survivors from the massacres that devastated the Achí community, retained the seeds from their ancestral crops— corn, beans, and squash—with the resolve to plant them once again, sustaining traditions that include commitment to Mother Earth (what they call Qachuu Aloom) as well as their own self-determination. Throughout the Maya territories of Guatemala are similar stories of survival and cultural and community resilience against a backdrop of domination, systemic poverty, and exclusion (Lovell, 1988; McAllister & Nelson, 2013). According to Achí leader Julian Vasquez, the Covid-19 outbreak, while taken seriously, represents just one more “thing” they must deal with and overcome. “Before the coronavirus, there was dengue, and cholera,” Vasquez told me in one of our many conversations. “There were hurricanes and droughts. . . .” (personal communication, 2020). To that one could easily add repression [End Page 264] and violence, along with the impact of external development projects that usurp lands and continue processes of colonization (Suazo, 2009). Not unlike the situation in the U.S., the economic fallout presents additional challenges. “I had work that I was depending on,” said Vasquez. “But due to the quarantine, that was no longer possible.” (At the time of writing there was a strict curfew from 4 p.m. to 4 a.m., along with other rules limiting free movement and gathering.) He told me that instead he put his efforts into this year’s milpa!the Indigenous Mesoamerican farming system that brings the heritage crops mentioned above together into a symbiotic agroecosystem. “We may not have work,” he told me. “But food, yes.” And quality food it is. Part of the local agroecological movement, Vasquez works with other community members to recover sustainable farming practices and native crop varieties; plants noted for their high level of nutrition, along with spiritual and cultural value. “Everywhere families are harvesting and celebrating,” he said, noting that he, too, increased how much he sowed over last year, while experimenting with new soil and water conservation techniques that would help prevent losses if another drought were to occur (see Oxfam, 2019, concerning the devastating impacts of the 2019 drought). There are some clear reasons why an increase in traditional family farming in the Achí region—and elsewhere, I argue—is beneficial. First, it improves local food security at the family and community level, which may be essential in the event of lost income and disruption in supply chains. Because many Achí communities are extremely rural, a loss of even meager salaries obtained through day labor, along with restrictions on public transportation, inhibited their ability to get to the market in the municipal capital of Rabinal. Having food locally available is necessary for self-sufficiency at the village level. Second, increasing the production and consumption of culturally and ecologically appropriate foods that comprise the traditional Mesoamerican diet may help combat malnutrition and other diet-related health problems (e.g. diabetes), many of...

Gender and the Preservation of Family Farming in Ireland

SummaryFamily farming is the main model of European agriculture and is a means to promote rural development, agricultural sustainability and safeguarding of cultural heritage. Nevertheless, changes in modern societies and commodity markets lead to disruptions in the traditional family farming model and increasingly challenge its preservation. In this changing environment, many farmers strive to secure intergenerational farm transfer, but women are sometimes still disadvantaged in inheriting the family enterprise. In Ireland, farm succession patterns are dictated by patrilineal socio‐cultural values. This not only causes gender equality issues, but it also limits the poll of potential successors when willing candidates can be scarce. Men occupy the hegemonic position of the farmer and women are subordinated to the role of the farmer's wife. With these gender roles come societal expectations of what a traditional male farmer is. Problems arise from a disconnect between this traditional identity and the current reality of Irish farmers. Reliance on off‐farm income, social isolation and the high pace of societal change contribute to reduced well‐being of rural men. In this context, it is argued that evolution of patriarchal socio‐cultural norms underpinning family farming could lead to a redefinition of gender roles, thereby reducing the pressure on farm men and empowering farm women.

What farmer types are most likely to adopt joint venture farm business structures?

Joint venture (JV) farm structures have the potential to increase the productivity and profitability of traditional family farms. However, such structures are not widely adopted within the farm business community. Furthermore, knowledge on the relative attractiveness of different JV models to farmers is limited. We use a choice experiment to explore what JV structures are preferred by Australian farmers, and how farmers’ socio‐demographic and attitudinal characteristics influence the type of JV structure preferred. A latent class analysis revealed significant unobserved preference heterogeneity amongst the population. We identify four latent classes that differ in their preferences regarding the number of JV partners, access to new machinery, and/or the opportunity for additional annual leave. All classes of farmers displayed positive preferences for operational decision‐making with other JV partners, although they varied in their preferences towards final operational responsibility. The diversity in preferences shows that there is no ‘one size fits all’ JV design, leaving opportunities for a range of JV decision models. Such flexibility in JV design is likely to have advantages when seeking JV partners, with a significant proportion of the sampled population open to collaborative decision‐making models.

Effects of Transitions in North American Animal Agriculture on Animal Well-being: Personal Observations

Abstract People involved with production animal agriculture in the U.S., including owners and workers, are often portrayed as callous to animal welfare. While callous people exist in any population, I maintain that most people who own and work with farm animals do consider animal welfare, both for moral and economic reasons. It is rare that stressed, unhealthy or injured animals are more profitable than healthy, unstressed ones. Furthermore, the owners of farm animals and related facilities overwhelmingly are families or individuals (~97%), not corporations; most owners of so-called industrial farms are but a generation removed from so-called family farms, and most of these owners still have values similar to those of traditional family farms, although their hired workers may not. Farmers need to have income, so husbandry practices need to be profitable for farms to be sustainable. However, production animal agriculture has not been very profitable, partly because most products are commodities, and this low profitability has been a major cause of the huge decrease in numbers of farmers and farm units over the past century. The net result is larger units with less attention paid to individual animals, which can be problematic, but does not necessarily result in decreased animal welfare. Modern genetic tools and facilities can be used to promote animal welfare simultaneously with improving production efficiency and economic viability.

Entering the occupational category of ‘Farmer’: new pathways through professional agricultural education in Ireland

ABSTRACTPurpose: Understand the emergence of new potential career trajectories in the liberalised Irish dairy farming sector through analysis of the narratives of students of a Professional Diploma in Dairy Farm ManagementDesign/methodology/approach: A review of the literature highlights that entry to a working life in agriculture has been characterised by protracted farm succession processes; a strong association between being a farmer and owning land in the family name; lingering male identities esteeming manual labour; and a pragmatic need at farm level for manual work. The abolition of milk quota in 2015 was predicted to catalyse expansion of production on dairy farms with an increase in milk production; accompanied by a demand for qualified personnel. The BNIM method was employed.Findings: Results confirm that agricultural education is perceived and experienced as offering new pathways for young farmers to enter the occupational category of ‘farmer’, helping to manoeuvre around the constraints of non-inheritance. The students’ narratives evidenced managerial identities, being strongly influenced by encountering management approaches through their agricultural education. All students desired to eventually own a farm someday and to be to employed as a professional dairy farm manager was a perceived as an intermediary goal.Practical implication: Discontinuation of the traditional family farming model based on family farm/land ownership is not imminent even among a cohort qualified to become employed dairy farm managers.Theoretical implication: This paper contributes to theoretical framework which highlights the shift in farmer masculine identity and the career trajectory of graduates of specialised agricultural education programmes.

Current status and challenges for potato chemical fertilizer &amp;amp; pesticide reductions in China

Under the pressures from growing population, arable land diminishment, yield limitation of major grain crops, global climatic change, etc, there is a latent crisis in Chinese food security. Potato, as the fourth major crop, plays a vital role in alleviating food problem considering its great nutritive value, high yield and adaptability. Chemical fertilizers and pesticides (CFPs) are implicated in ensuring stable and high yields of potato. Therefore, CFPs were intensively used for boosting up the yield; however, the use intensity of CFPs exceeds the international recognized standard, resulting in negative impacts on environment quality, agri-ecosystem, land productivity and tuber production cost. Consequently, those obstacles mentioned above jeopardized the sustainability of potato industry. In order to solve the dilemma, this article focuses on the analysis of the major reasons for abuse of CFPs, and further identified that the excessive consumption could be attributed to high application intensity, low utilization efficiency and lack of scientific application methods. Furthermore, this article introduces the technological advances and future trends in chemical fertilizer and pesticide reductions (CFPR) of developed countries. Based on the successful CFPR experiences abroad, the article also provides some development strategies for Chinese potato CFPR. (1) Promote legislation curbing application rate of potato CFPs. Several research projects were initiated to investigate the scientific standard of application amount for CFPs. Once the scientific standards were set, they could be gradually legislated into agricultural laws to stipulate the use of CFPs nationwide. (2) Promote the innovation on high-efficient application technology and encourage the use of green alternatives to chemical controls. Efforts on scientific research and education should be strengthen to speed up the innovation/application of advanced CFPR techniques. In addition, recognized reduction techniques abroad could be transferred to improve our application practices in pursuit of chemical contamination decreases. Some chemical fertilizers could be replaced by organic fertilizer, or they could be used in combination with organic fertilizers to enhance use efficiency. Chemical pesticides, to some extent, could be substituted by efficient, low toxicity/residue pesticides, and green prevention techniques could be employed to avoid pesticide abuse. (3) Promote the invention/improvement of intelligent agro-equipment with precision application capabilities. Unlike developed countries, the majority of Chinese potato production entities is still dispersible, small-scale, traditional family farms. Hence, modern fertilizer/pesticide machinery including deep fertilization and accurate spaying should be developed accordingly to meet specific needs of Chinese farmers. However, in the large-scale and intensive potato-growing area of north China, it is reasonable for the large potato enterprise and cooperatives to introduce advanced equipment and management system overseas. (4) Integration of multiple CR technologies to meet diverse regional needs. Combined with traditional reduction techniques such as soil testing, formulated fertilization, drip-fertigation and integrated pest-control, newly developed reduction technology could be integrated into regional “Potato Chemical Fertilizer and Pesticide Reduction” technique systems according to the diverse ecological, climatic and cultivating factors. Through demonstration zones and potato-grower trainings, popularization of reduction techniques would benefit the potato-growing farmers and cooperatives, which would significantly reduce the use of CFPs in China.

A Farm Bill for the Agriculture We Want

First paragraphs: The United States farm bill expires in 2018 and is scheduled to be replaced by new legislation approved by the U.S. Congress and implemented by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). The USDA has already announced its farm bill prefer­ences and the legislative principles it hopes will guide the 2018 legislative process (USDA, 2018). Its policy agenda for 2018 seems to be pretty much the same as those for past farm bills—at least for those over the past 50 years. Regardless of whether we like what we have been getting, the USDA apparently plans to give us more of the same. “We can have any kind of agriculture we want, if we choose the right agricultural policies.” This was a frequent statement of Harold Breimyer, one of the most respected agricultural economists in the U.S. during the last half of the 20th century. He was my professional mentor in that he was an unabashed advocate of traditional family farming. He also continued to be active professionally for as long as he lived—17 years after retiring from the University of Missouri.

Maintaining Traditions: A Qualitative Study of Early Childhood Caries Risk and Protective Factors in an Indigenous Community

In lower middle-income economies (LMIE), the nutrition transition from traditional diets to sugary foods and beverages has contributed to widespread early childhood dental caries. This qualitative study explores perceived risk and protective factors, and overall experiences of early childhood nutrition and oral health in indigenous Ecuadorian families participating in a community-based oral health and nutrition intervention. Dental exams of 698 children age 6 months through 6 years determined each child’s caries burden. A convenience sample of 18 “outlier” families was identified: low-caries children with ≤2 carious teeth vs. high-caries children with ≥10 carious teeth. Semi-structured in-depth interviews with parents/caregivers explored the child’s diet, dental habits, and family factors related to nutrition and oral health. Interviews were transcribed and thematically analyzed using grounded theory. In the high-caries families, proximity to highway and stores, consumption of processed-food, and low parental monitoring of child behavior were identified as risk factors for ECC (early childhood caries). In the low-caries families, protective factors included harvesting and consuming food from the family farm, remote geography, and greater parental monitoring of child behavior. The study results suggest that maintaining traditional family farms and authoritative parenting to avoid processed foods/drinks and ensure tooth brushing could improve early childhood nutrition and oral health.

Confined animal feeding operations and state-based right to farm laws: Managing twenty-first century agriculture with a twentieth century framework in the case of Wisconsin, United States

O ver the last several decades, large, industrial livestock farms have increasingly replaced small, traditional family farms, thereby changing normative agricultural practices and increasing the quantity and concentration of externalities associated with farming (dust, odor, manure runoff, chemical drift, and soil and groundwater contamination). Limited federal regulations exist to protect nearby ecosystems, wildlife, and people from soil, air, and water pollution from industrial farms. Furthermore, many statewide right to farm laws continue to protect industrial farms from private and public nuisance claims associated with environmental degradation. Right to farm laws were first adopted by state legislatures in the 1980s in response to the expansion of peri-urban development and the increased conflict between new suburban residents and existing farmers in the United States (Lapping and Leutwiler 1987). New suburban residents increasingly filed private and public nuisance claims against nearby farmers due to encroachment of agricultural dust, noise, smell, and chemical drift (Lisansky and Clark 1987). The high court costs and desirable real estate offers from developers pressured farmers to discontinue farming, and lawmakers feared the long-term consequences resulting from diminishing agricultural operations (Lisansky and Clark 1987). While every US state adopted their own version of a right to farm law in the…