Traditional Electrolytes Research Articles

Hybrid Polymer‐Liquid Electrolytes and Their Interactions with Electrode Materials

AbstractTo address the increasing demand for efficient, safe, and sustainable energy storage solutions in the transition towards renewable energy and electrified society, this study explores hybrid polymer‐liquid electrolytes (HEs) as a novel solution to overcome challenges of traditional liquid electrolytes used in lithium‐ion batteries (LIBs). Particularly, the research is focused on polymerization‐induced phase separation (PIPS) synthesized HEs with distinct phase‐separated systems, where an ion‐conducting liquid phase percolates the macropores and mesopores within the formed thermoset solid phase. This study investigates the feasibility of using HEs with commercial cathodes and highlights their respective merits and challenges. The feasibility of infusing and forming HEs in commercial cathodes via PIPS within both micron‐sized and nano‐sized confined spaces is proved. By incorporating these HE‐infused electrodes into half‐cell configurations, the study proves that the HEs are compatible with common cathodes, and they exhibit energy density comparable with traditional systems with liquid electrolyte.

Anion-Modulated Solvation Sheath and Electric Double Layer Enabling Lithium-Ion Storage From -60 to 80 °C.

Current lithium batteries experience significant performance degradation under extreme temperature conditions, both high and low. Traditional wide-temperature electrolyte designs typically addressed these challenges by manipulating the solvation sheath and selecting solvents with extreme melting/boiling points. However, these solvent-mediated solutions, while effective at one temperature extreme, invariably fail at the opposite end due to the inherent difficulties in maintaining solvent stability across wide temperatures. Herein, we report the use of the main lithium salt to simultaneously address interfacial challenges at both extremely high and low temperatures. This approach is different from the conventional solvent-mediated strategies. As a proof of concept, we utilized lithium nitrate (LiNO3) to establish an anion-controlled solvation structure and electric double layer. The formulated electrolytes exhibited remarkable performance across temperature extremes, retaining 56.1% capacity at -60 °C and sustaining 400 stable cycles at 80 °C. In contrast, electrolytes based on current solvent-mediated strategies failed to operate at -60 °C and could not exceed 50 cycles at 80 °C. By shifting the focus to the main salt rather than the solvent, our work offers the possibility of addressing the enduring challenges of electrolyte stability across a broad temperature range.

Electrochemical Corrosion Properties and Protective Performance of Coatings Electrodeposited from Deep Eutectic Solvent-Based Electrolytes: A Review

The application of deep eutectic solvents (DESs) as an innovative class of environmentally friendly liquid media represents a significant advancement in materials science, especially for the development and enhancement of structural materials. Among the promising applications, DESs are particularly attractive for the electrodeposition of corrosion-resistant coatings. It is established that corrosion-resistant and protective coatings, including those based on metals, alloys, and composite materials, can be synthesized using both traditional aqueous electrolytes and non-aqueous systems, such as organic solvents and ionic liquids. The integration of DESs in electroplating introduces a unique capacity for precise control over microstructure, chemical composition, and morphology, thereby improving the electrochemical corrosion resistance and protective performance of coatings. This review focuses on the electrodeposition of corrosion-resistant and protective coatings from DES-based electrolytes, emphasizing their environmental, technological, and economic benefits relative to traditional aqueous and organic solvent systems. Detailed descriptions are provided for the electrodeposition processes of coatings based on zinc, nickel, and chromium from DES-based baths. The corrosion–electrochemical behavior and protective characteristics of the resulting coatings are thoroughly analyzed, highlighting the potential and future directions for developing anti-corrosion and protective coatings using DES-assisted electroplating techniques.

Advancements in lithium solid polymer batteries: surface modification, in-situ/operando characterization, and simulation methodologies

The interest in lithium solid-state batteries (LSSBs) is rapidly escalating, driven by their impressive energy density and safety features. However, they face crucial challenges, including limited ionic conductivity, high interfacial resistance, and unwanted side reactions. Intensive research has been conducted on polymer solid-state electrolytes positioned between the anode and cathode, aiming to replace traditional liquid electrolytes. To alleviate interfacial resistance and mitigate adverse reactions between electrodes and polymer electrolytes, the interfacial modification strategy has been proven to enhance the energy density of LSSBs. This design process is grounded in precise and elaborate theories, with in-situ /operando techniques and simulation methods facilitating the interpretation and validation of structure-property relationships by simplifying them. This review first outlines the recent advancements in surface modification strategies specifically tailored for solid polymer electrolytes. Furthermore, it also provides an overview of innovative in-situ /operando characterizations and simulation methods featured in recent publications, which can gain a more accurate understanding of processes that occur within materials, devices, or chemical reactions as they are happening. Lastly, the review discusses the existing challenges and presents a forward-looking perspective on the future of the next-generation LSSBs.

Diatomite-Based Hybrid Electrolyte for Improving Reversibility of Cathode/Anode Interface Reaction in Zn-MnO2 Batteries.

The cyclic stability of aqueous zinc-manganese batteries (ZMBs) is greatly restricted by the side reaction of the anode and the irreversibility of the cathode. In this work, a solid-liquid hybrid electrolyte mixing by traditional ZnSO4-based electrolyte and diatomite (denoted as Dtm) is proposed that exhibits good compatibility and reversibility in both the anode interface and the cathode interface. The abundant hydroxyl groups at the anode interface disturb the hydrogen bond network of water molecule, which weakens the corrosion of the active water to Zn anode. Moreover, the negatively charged surface of diatomite is able to regulate the electric field at the anode interface to promote the uniform deposition of Zn ion as well as inhibit the formation of Zn hydroxyl sulfate (ZHS) at the anode interface. As a result, Zn||Zn symmetric battery with Dtm achieves a stable cycling for 2500h at 1mA cm-2/1 mAh cm-2, while Zn||MnO2 battery can achieve a stable cycle time of 500 cycles at current densities of 0.2 and 0.5 A g-1 with capacities of 228 and 177.6 mAh g-1, respectively. The Dtm provides new ideas for electrolyte screening for high-performance aqueous ZMBs.

Carving Metal-Organic-Framework Glass Based Solid-State Electrolyte Via a Top-Down Strategy for Lithium-Metal Battery.

Traditional polymer solid electrolytes (PSEs) suffer from low Li conductivity, poor kinetics and safety concerns. Here, we present a novel porous MOF glass gelled polymer electrolyte (PMG-GPE) prepared via a top-down strategy, which features a unique three-dimensional interconnected graded-aperture structure for efficient ion transport. Comprehensive analyses, including time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (TOF-SIMS), Solid-state 7Li magic-angle-spinning nuclear magnetic resonance (MAS-NMR), Molecular Dynamics (MD) simulations, and electrochemical tests, quantify the pore structures, revealing their relationship with ion conductivity that increases and then decreases as macropore proportion rises. The introduced dispersed macropores (17% fraction) can serve as bridges, connecting adjacent transport units to accelerate ion transport. Taking advantage of the cross-linked ion-conductive pathsconstructed by hierarchical pore structure, the PMG-GPE achieves a high ionic conductivity of 1.9 mS cm-1. Additionally, the robust mechanical properties of PMG-GPE effectively suppress dendrite growth and penetration, outperforming crystal MOF-based electrolytes. The prepared Li symmetric batteries with PMG-GPE demonstrate a high critical current density of 5.1 mA cm-2 (two times higher than crystal MOF-electrolytes) and stable cycling for over 6000 hours without short circuits. Furthermore, a Li/PMG-GPE/LFP half-cell exhibits exceptional capacity retention of 83.12% after 1400 cycles.

Electrochromism via reversible electrodeposition of solid iodine

Electrochromic materials were discovered in the 1960s when scientists observed reversible changes between the light and dark states in WO3 thin films under different voltages. Since then, researchers have identified various electrochromic material systems, including transition metal oxides, polymer materials, and small molecules. However, the electrochromic phenomenon has rarely been observed in non-metallic elemental substances. Herein, we propose the development of non-metallic iodine electrodeposition-based electrochromic dynamic windows using a water-in-salt electrolyte containing iodine ions. The unique electrolyte environment and solvation structure of the water-in-salt electrolyte suppress the dissolution and shuttle effect of iodine, thereby achieving a different reaction pathway compared to traditional electrolytes. This pathway involves a reversible solid-liquid transition between solid iodine and solvated iodide ions. The iodine electrodeposition-based electrochromic dynamic window demonstrates a high optical contrast of 76.0% with near colour neutrality and excellent cycling stability. A practical 400 cm2 complementary dynamic window is fabricated to demonstrate good electrochromic performance, including high optical contrast, a near colour-neutral opaque state, fast response time, uniform modulation, and polarity-switchable functionality.

Tailoring Water-in-DMSO Electrolyte for Ultra-stable Rechargeable Zinc Batteries.

Rechargeable zinc batteries (RZBs) are hindered by two primary challenges: instability of Zn anode and deterioration of the cathode structure in traditional aqueous electrolytes, largely attributable to the decomposition of active H2O. Here, we design and synthesize a non-flammable water-in-dimethyl sulfoxide electrolyte to address these issues. X-ray absorption spectroscopy, in situ techniques and computational simulations demonstrate that the activity of H2O in this electrolyte is extremely compressed, which not only suppresses the side reactions and increases the reversibility of Zn anode, but also diminishes the cathode dissolution and proton intercalation. The hybrid solid-electrolyte interface (SEI), formed in situ, helps Zn-Zn symmetric cell a prolonged lifespan exceeding 10000 hat 0.5 mA cm-2 and 600 h at a 60% discharge depth. The versatility of this electrolyte endows the Zn-VO2 full batteries ultra-stable cycling performance. This work provides insights into electrolyte structure-property relationships, and facilitates the design of high-performance RZBs.

Tailoring Water‐in‐DMSO Electrolyte for Ultra‐stable Rechargeable Zinc Batteries

Rechargeable zinc batteries (RZBs) are hindered by two primary challenges: instability of Zn anode and deterioration of the cathode structure in traditional aqueous electrolytes, largely attributable to the decomposition of active H2O. Here, we design and synthesize a non‐flammable water‐in‐dimethyl sulfoxide electrolyte to address these issues. X‐ray absorption spectroscopy, in situ techniques and computational simulations demonstrate that the activity of H2O in this electrolyte is extremely compressed, which not only suppresses the side reactions and increases the reversibility of Zn anode, but also diminishes the cathode dissolution and proton intercalation. The hybrid solid‐electrolyte interface (SEI), formed in situ, helps Zn‐Zn symmetric cell a prolonged lifespan exceeding 10000 h at 0.5 mA cm−2 and 600 h at a 60% discharge depth. The versatility of this electrolyte endows the Zn‐VO2 full batteries ultra‐stable cycling performance. This work provides insights into electrolyte structure‐property relationships, and facilitates the design of high‐performance RZBs.

Regulating the solvation environment of hybrid electrolytes towards high-temperature zinc-ion storage

Zinc-ion batteries (ZIBs) are being explored as a potential alternative to lithium-ion batteries owing to the growing demand for safer, more sustainable, cost-effective energy storage technologies. In such systems, electrolytes, as one of the key components, have a decisive impact on their electrochemical performance. However, Zn anodes in traditional aqueous electrolytes exhibit drawbacks such as severe hydrogen evolution reactions, Zn corrosion and passivation especially at high temperatures, leading to poor cycling performance of ZIBs. Herein, we designed and evaluated a series of hybrid electrolytes consisting of zinc tetrafluoroborate hydrate [Zn(BF4)2·xH2O] as the solute and various organic solvents [tetraglyme (G4), propylene carbonate, and dimethylformamide] for high-temperature ZIBs. Comparative analysis revealed that G4-based hybrid electrolytes exhibit a unique Zn2+ solvation structure primarily surrounded by organic solvent rather than H2O, which substantially reduces H2O-related side reactions and thus promotes more reversible Zn deposition than propylene carbonate-based and dimethylformamide-based hybrid electrolytes. The superiority of G4-based hybrid electrolyte is further confirmed by long stable cycling life of the corresponding Zn||Zn symmetric cell (> 350 h) and Zn-ion capacitor full cell (over 1,400 cycles with 90.7% capacity retention) at 60 °C.

Enhanced Ion Solvation and Conductivity in Lithium-Ion Electrolytes via Tailored EMC-TMS Solvent Mixtures: A Molecular Dynamics Study.

The development of stable, high-performance electrolytes is essential to addressing the safety concerns and limited lifespan caused by the thermal and chemical instability of traditional organic carbonate-based electrolytes in lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). This study examined the potential of mixed solvent systems, specifically ethyl methyl carbonate (EMC) and tetramethylene sulfone (TMS), to modify ion solvation and improve ionic conductivity in LIB electrolytes. Through molecular dynamics simulations, we investigated the solvation structure and transport properties of lithium ions (Li+) in these solvent environments. The inclusion of TMS altered the solvation structure, with TMS molecules preferentially coordinating with Li+ ions, displacing PF6 - anions and reducing their electrostatic interference. Our results demonstrated a synergistic interaction between EMC and TMS, where an EMC/TMS ratio of 1:2 led to a significant improvement in ionic conductivity, reaching 0.91 mS/cm, with a corresponding Li+ transference number of 0.40. These findings provide key insights into the molecular-level interaction governing electrolyte behavior, offering guidance for the design of future solvent mixtures to improve the safety and efficiency of LIBs.

A Stable Solid-Electrolyte Interphase Constructed by a Nucleophilic Molecule Additive for the Zn Anode with High Utilization and Efficiency.

The solid-electrolyte interphase (SEI) strongly determines the stability and reversibility of aqueous Zn-ion batteries (AZIBs). In traditional electrolytes, the nonuniform SEI layer induced by severe parasitic reactions, such as the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER), will exacerbate the side reactions on Zn anodes, thus leading to low zinc utilization ratios (ZURs). Herein, we propose to use methoxy ethylamine (MOEA) as a nucleophilic additive, which has a stronger nucleophilic characteristic than water, with the advantage of an abundance of nucleophilic atoms. The Helmholtz plane (HP) on the Zn anode can be manipulated via the adsorption of MOEA, which excludes free water from the HP due to its strong affinity with metallic Zn. Benefiting from the optimization of the HP, side reactions are greatly suppressed, and a smooth SEI layer can be constructed, enabling the Zn anode to work at high ZURs and high areal capacities. Consequently, the Zn||Cu asymmetric cell exhibits an extremely high cumulative plating capacity of 4 Ah cm-2 at 10 mA cm-2 with an average Coulombic efficiency (CE) of 99.8%. The Zn||Zn symmetric cell achieves a maximum ZUR of 80% at an areal capacity of 20 mAh cm-2 for 130 h, accounting for the boosted reversibility of Zn||V2O5 and Zn||AC full cells under low N/P ratios. Our strategy with nucleophilic electrolyte additives opens a path for developing durable aqueous Zn batteries with high ZURs.

A wearable sensor device based on screen-printed chip with biofuel cell-driven electrochromic display for noninvasive monitoring of glucose concentration

Wearable flexible sensor devices have the characteristics of lightweight and miniaturization. Currently, power supply and detection components limit the portability of wearable flexible sensor devices. Meanwhile, conventional liquid electrolytes are unsuitable for the integration of sensing devices. To address these constraints, wearable biofuel cells and flexible electrochromic displays have been introduced, which can improve integration with other devices, safety, and color-coded display data. Meanwhile, electrode chips prepared through screen printing technology can further improve portability. In this work, a wearable sensor device with screen-printed chips was constructed and used for non-invasive detection of glucose. Agarose gel electrolytes doped with PDA-CNTs were prepared, and the mechanical strength and moisture retention were significantly improved compared with traditional gel electrolytes. Glucose in interstitial fluid was non-invasive extracted to the skin surface using reverse iontophoresis. As a biofuel for wearable biofuel cells, glucose drives self-powered sensor and electrochromic display to produce color change, allowing for visually measurement of glucose levels in body fluids. Accurate detection results can be visualized by reading the RGB value with a cell phone.

Dual-Functional Additives Boost Zinc-Ion Battery Electrolyte over Wide Temperature Range

Traditional aqueous electrolyte systems in zinc-ion batteries (ZIBs) often face challenges such as sluggish ion transfer kinetics, dendrite formation, and sudden battery failures in harsh temperature environments. Herein, we introduce a pioneering approach by integrating a bifunctional additive composed of ethylene glycol (EG) and sodium gluconate (Ga) into ZnSO 4 (ZSO) electrolyte to overcome these obstacles. The polyhydroxy structures of EG and Ga can reconstruct the hydrogen bond network of H 2 O to improve its liquid stability, and also adjust the coordination environment around hydrated Zn 2+ . Additionally, Ga in the H 2 O–EG mixture leads to the formation of a robust protective layer that promotes uniform deposition of Zn 2+ ions and minimizes unwanted side reactions. Therefore, Zn anodes with 40% ZSO–Ga electrolyte can cycle for more than 3,000 h at 25 °C and 800 h at 50 °C. Furthermore, Zn||NH 4 V 4 O 10 (NVO) full batteries demonstrate remarkable cycle stability, lasting up to 10,000 cycles at 1 A g −1 with a capacity retention of 79.1%. The multifunctional electrolyte additive employed in this study emerges as a promising candidate for enabling highly stable zinc anodes under diverse temperature conditions.

Improvement of the Conductive Ability of Polymer Electrolytes

In current applied research, traditional electrolytes face significant challenges. The emergence and application of polymer electrolytes provide effective solutions to these problems. This paper will introduce the types and characteristics of polymer electrolytes based on three aspects. The star-shaped compound based on PEGMA, i.e., poly(ethylene glycol) methacrylate, can significantly enhance the mechanical and electrical properties of polymer electrolytes; the gel electrolyte prepared by compounding highly polar β-polyvinylidene fluoride (β-PVDF) with nylon 6 shows significant application potential in improving ion conduction efficiency and enhancing battery safety. Brush-shaped polymers have good performance in avoiding the crystallization of linear polymers and inhibiting the growth of lithium dendrites and improving mechanical strength. These three types of polymer electrolytes each have their characteristics and good application prospects. Still, they all face problems such as high cost and difficulties in industrialization at the present stage and need further development to better benefit human society. This paper aims to provide those who want to explore and do some decent research on this topic with some basic information as well as fundamental advice.

Molecular Customization of Anode‐Electrolyte Interfaces for Enhanced Stability and Reversibility in Aqueous Zinc‐Carbon Capacitors

Aqueous zinc‐carbon capacitors display application potential in green power and high‐end equipment owing to their high security, large power and sustainability. The water‐rich zinc anode‐electrolyte interface (AEI) and disordered zinc‐ion diffusion are the culprits triggering corrosion reactions and dendrite growth, threatening the sustainability of aqueous zinc‐carbon capacitors. Herein, a polyfunctional biomolecular, vitamin B6, is introduced into the traditional aqueous electrolyte for customizing the functional AEI and fine‐regulating the interfacial coordination environment of zinc ions. Specifically, the preferential anchoring of pyridine nitrogen enables trace vitamin (2.0 g L‐1) to construct a robust AEI and suppress corrosion reactions. The hydroxyl function zone provides high‐octane guidance for zinc‐ion diffusion at the AEI, resulting in flat zinc (002) oriented growth. Consequently, the Zn//Zn symmetrical cell features an ultrahigh cumulative capacity of 4.0 Ah cm‐2 under 34% depth of discharge. The vitamin‐optimized zinc‐carbon capacitor features extended operational lifetimes exceeding 8 months (200 thousand cycles at 5.0 A g‐1), and demonstrates a high areal capacity of averaging 0.68 mAh cm‐2 and exceptional durability over 2000 hours at 1.0 A g‐1 under a high discharge depth of zinc anode (averaging 11.6%). This work offers valuable insights into sustainable and cost‐effective zinc‐carbon capacitors.

Molecular Customization of Anode-Electrolyte Interfaces for Enhanced Stability and Reversibility in Aqueous Zinc-Carbon Capacitors.

Aqueous zinc-carbon capacitors display application potential in green power and high-end equipment owing to their high security, large power and sustainability. The water-rich zinc anode-electrolyte interface (AEI) and disordered zinc-ion diffusion are the culprits triggering corrosion reactions and dendrite growth, threatening the sustainability of aqueous zinc-carbon capacitors. Herein, a polyfunctional biomolecular, vitamin B6, is introduced into the traditional aqueous electrolyte for customizing the functional AEI and fine-regulating the interfacial coordination environment of zinc ions. Specifically, the preferential anchoring of pyridine nitrogen enables trace vitamin (2.0 g L-1) to construct a robust AEI and suppress corrosion reactions. The hydroxyl function zone provides high-octane guidance for zinc-ion diffusion at the AEI, resulting in flat zinc (002) oriented growth. Consequently, the Zn//Zn symmetrical cell features an ultrahigh cumulative capacity of 4.0 Ah cm-2 under 34% depth of discharge. The vitamin-optimized zinc-carbon capacitor features extended operational lifetimes exceeding 8 months (200 thousand cycles at 5.0 A g-1), and demonstrates a high areal capacity of averaging 0.68 mAh cm-2 and exceptional durability over 2000 hours at 1.0 A g-1 under a high discharge depth of zinc anode (averaging 11.6%). This work offers valuable insights into sustainable and cost-effective zinc-carbon capacitors.

Inorganic-Dominated Interphase Enabled by Tuning Solvation Configuration for 4.8 V Lithium-Ion Batteries.

Constructing a dense inorganic component-dominated cathode electrolyte interphase (CEI) to meet the long-term cycling requirements of ultrahigh voltage cathodes has been a crucial challenge. Nevertheless, this goal is difficult to achieve in traditional electrolyte compositions due to the inevitable decomposition of organic solvents. Herein, by utilizing the localized mismatch between the strongly coordinating hexafluorophosphate anion (PF6-) and the weakly coordinating solvent 1,1,1-trifluoro-N,N-dimethylmethanesulfonamide (TFDMSA), abundant aggregates (AGGs) emerged under a regular Li salt concentration of 1 m lithium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide (LiFSI) + 0.1 m LiPF6 in TFDMSA. This anion-rich Li+ solvation structure results in an inorganic-dominated LiF-rich CEI to suppress phase transitions of lithium-rich manganese-based cathode materials (LLMO). Consequently, the prepared LLMO||Li half-cells demonstrate a capacity retention of 80.7% after 350 cycles at 4.8 V. This work advances the practical application of new electrolyte systems by proposing a new approach to construct anion-dominated Li+ solvation structures in local environments.

A Flexible Yet Robust 3D-Hybrid Gel Solid-State Electrolyte Based on Metal-Organic Frameworks for Rechargeable Lithium Metal Batteries.

Compared to traditional liquid electrolytes, solid electrolytes have received widespread attention due to their higher safety. In this work, a vinyl functionalized metal-organic framework porous material (MIL-101(Cr)-NH-Met, noted as MCN-M) is synthesized by postsynthetic modification. A novel three-dimensional hybrid gel composite solid electrolyte (GCSE-P/MCN-M) is successfully prepared via in situ gel reaction of a mixture containing multifunctional hybrid crosslinker (MCN-M), lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (LiTFSI), ethylene carbonate (EC), diethylene glycol monomethyl ether methacrylate (EGM) and polyethylene (vinylidene fluoridee) (PVDF). Benefiting from the excellent mechanical properties, rich pore structure, and numerous unsaturated metal sites of GCSE-P/MCN-M, our GCSE-P/MCN-M exhibits excellent mechanical modulus (953 MPa), good ionic conductivity (9.3 × 10-4 S cm-1) and wide electrochemical window (4.8 V). In addition, Li/LiFePO4 batteries based on GCSE-P/MCN-M have also demonstrated excellent cycling performance (a high-capacity retention of 87% after 200 cycles at 0.5 C). This work provides a promising approach for developing gel solid-state electrolytes with high ion conduction and excellent safety performance.

A Comparison of the Electrical Properties of Gel Polymer Electrolyte-Based Supercapacitors: A Review of Advances in Electrolyte Materials.

Flexible solid-state-based supercapacitors are in demand for the soft components used in electronics. The increased attention paid toward solid-state electrolytes could be due to their advantages, including no leakage, special separators, and improved safety. Gel polymer electrolytes (GPEs) are preferred in the energy storage field, likely owing to their safety, lack of leakage, and compatibility with various separators as well as their higher ionic conductivity (IC) than traditional solid electrolytes. This review covers the classification, properties, and configurations of different GPE-based supercapacitors and recent advancements that have occurred in this area of energy storage. Ionic liquid (IL)-based materials are popular GPEs for electrochemical energy storage and can be used to prepare unprecedented flexible supercapacitors due to their great IC and wide potential range. A comparative assessment of the GPEs-based supercapacitors reveals that in a majority of them, the value of specific capacitance is generally under 1000 F g-1, energy density reaches around 125 Wh kg-1, and the power density is seen to be less than 1500 W kg-1. The results of this research serve as an essential reference for upcoming scholars, and could significantly improve our comprehension of the efficacy of GPE-containing supercapacitors.