Traditional Courtyard Houses Research Articles

Comparative Analysis of Form and Compass Schools in Feng Shui Architecture

This study examines the relationship between different approaches to Feng Shui architecture, beginning with the origin of Feng Shui architecture in the Zhou and Qin Dynasties and the influence of Confucianism and Daoism. We then compare the Form and Compass Schools of Feng Shui architecture, providing insights into the design principles and spatial form analysis of traditional courtyard houses in Chaoshan and Beijing, China. This study emphasizes the need for a comprehensive understanding of Confucianist and Daoist principles in architectural practices and identifies their design criteria, safety factors, and sustainability aspects. DepthmapX software was used to analyze spaces of social interactions in Beijing courtyard houses, revealing the dynamics of social interactions within the architectural layout. The Compass School, which incorporates bāguà and bāzì, gained prominence in the early Republic of China due to its incorporation of bāzì and more systematic analyses. Both the Chaoshan and Beijing courtyard houses follow Confucianist principles but differ in their execution approaches. The Chaoshan house design aims for a single balanced environment, whereas Beijing houses use multiple layers of balance and incorporate secondary walls and entrances to combat harsh winter climates. The Compass School's use of Yin and Yang, along with the Five Elements, employs energetically aligned spaces that promote well-being and harmony, a concept less emphasized in the Form School.

Simulation and Analysis of Factors Influencing Climate Adaptability and Strategic Application in Traditional Courtyard Residences in Hot-Summer and Cold-Winter Regions: A Case Study of Xuzhou, China

Residential buildings consume significant amounts of energy worldwide. Traditional courtyard houses have substantial energy-saving potential due to their low energy consumption and high climate adaptability, which has heightened interest in their climate-responsive design. In recent years, extensive research on traditional houses has been conducted in China, indicating significant variations in energy performances among traditional courtyards within hot-summer and cold-winter climate zones. Therefore, this study, based on research conducted on traditional courtyard houses in the Xuzhou area and utilizing Ecotect and Phoenics ecotechnology software for simulation analysis, comparatively examines the factors influencing energy consumption to assess the energy-saving potential of these houses in hot-summer and cold-winter climate zones. Research has indicated that when traditional Xuzhou courtyard houses meet certain criteria—including an orientation of 20° east of south for the main building, width-to-depth ratio of 2:1, roof slope of 35°, courtyard width-to-depth ratio of 1.7:1, use of branch pick windows, building height of 4.5 m, and a specific window-to-wall ratio—they achieve optimal climate adaptability. This study proposes dimensions for traditional residential buildings suited to the Xuzhou climate and explores their practical application, providing targeted optimization and retrofitting suggestions to support sustainable architectural and ecological development.

Heritage Regeneration Models for Traditional Courtyard Houses in a Northern Chinese City (Jinan) in the Context of Urban Renewal

The fundamental disputes in urban heritage regeneration stem from variations in power dynamics and inherent value systems among stakeholders. Addressing conflicts and power differentials involving governmental bodies, market forces, community residents, experts, and scholars is crucial for fostering sustainable urban heritage development. Recently, these contradictions have grown more pronounced as China’s urbanization has transitioned from rapid expansion to a phase focused on existing urban assets. In the present research, the typical traditional courtyard-style residential buildings in Jinan, a historic city in northern China, were selected as the object of study. These houses often suffer from problems such as outdated infrastructure and low living conditions and have become difficult to adapt to contemporary urban life. A case study approach was employed focusing on a representative courtyard house to develop models for renewing and regenerating urban heritage, specifically tailored to traditional courtyard houses. The aim was to address conflicts and power disparities among urban heritage stakeholders through diverse mechanisms. Methodologically, the research integrates historical study and field investigation, participatory analysis, and policy analysis. Primary data sources include field surveys, historical research, oral interviews, and drone aerial photography. Models were constructed in the present study—namely, the heritage self-renewal, heritage revitalization, and heritage transformation models—for traditional courtyard houses. These models were designed to foster sustainable urban heritage development through collaborative efforts across various stakeholders and administrative levels. They will optimize the renewal mechanism of urban heritage, thus providing diversity and multiple possibilities for the preservation and reuse of architectural heritage in China. They aim to realize comprehensive urban heritage values, including vitality, health, efficiency, and equity, while accommodating the interests of diverse stakeholders.

Courtyards and Adjacent Spaces: Analyzing 26 Cases of Second-Order Proximity in Traditional Courtyard Houses of Yazd

Iranian traditional residential architecture is renowned for its central-courtyard houses, which are admired for their grandeur. While the courtyards and nearby spaces receive considerable artistic and historical appreciation, those situated further away often receive less attention. These areas are typically considered auxiliary and less functional for living, thereby receiving limited attention in architectural discussions. This study examines 26 traditional central-courtyard houses to investigate how spaces located farther from the courtyard (‘second-order’) compare to those directly adjacent (‘first-order’). It challenges the assumption that distance from the courtyard correlates with reduced functionality. Surprisingly, the analysis identifies similar architectural characteristics in both second-order and first-order spaces, suggesting that distant areas may serve functional roles comparable to those nearer the courtyard.

20:12

I saw them in an evening in 2021 when I passed by a clothes shop in Chaoyang’s famous hutong, or narrow alleys formed by traditional courtyard houses, during one of the many lockdown heights in Beijing that rarely paralyzed the entire city. To keep the economy running, individuals who momentarily shared a public space such as subways, shops, or schools with someone who tested positive, as indicated by the health codes we scanned everywhere we went, were put into 14-day quarantines without shutting down the neighborhood. The conversation I heard between the women went as follows:
 Customer: “So, you’re on lockdown?”
 Saleswomen: “Yes.”
 Customer: “You’d be here for 14 days?”
 Saleswomen: “Yes.”
 Customer: “How do you shower or sleep?”
 Saleswomen: “There’s a sink in the back to wash our face.”
 To protect public health, the public was ironically locked into unhealthy environments. Considering the inflation, artificial shortages in necessities, recession-induced layoffs, forced overtime in closed factories where most workers were quarantined at, and continued work that increased the risk of exposure, all without any financial assistance, the working class always bears the blunt of the impact of government and capitalist growth policies.
 This work is the third in my series called “Progress,” which contains snapshots of my personal life, a glimpse, or a momentary revelation that gives context and complexity to the well-acclaimed liberalization of Chinese economy.

Traditional Kerala Courtyard Houses: An Insight into Indoor Thermal Comfort within a Tropical Context

The indoor thermal environment holds a critical position within the realm of sustainable building practices, especially in the context of Kerala's warm and humid tropical climate. It plays a pivotal role in ensuring the comfort and well-being of occupants, making it a key consideration from the very inception of building design. This early emphasis on environmental concerns is essential for seamlessly integrating sustainability into the fabric of the building environment. The backdrop against which this emphasis on indoor thermal comfort occurs is the backdrop of global climate change, exemplified by the ongoing challenge of global warming. This phenomenon directly affects human comfort as a significant portion of our daily lives is spent indoors, engaged in various activities. As Kerala grapples with a growing urban population, the demand for additional housing, commercial spaces, offices, and amenities is on the rise. Modern-day occupants are increasingly cognizant of the pivotal role that sustainability plays in enhancing their overall quality of life. Central to this quality of life is the attainment of a favourable indoor thermal environment. This is especially true in residential settings, where the well-being and safety of residents are paramount. Global warming, with its rising temperatures and escalating greenhouse gas emissions, has wide-ranging repercussions for outdoor environments. In response, residential developments undergo transformations that alter urban climate dynamics. These changes are manifest in shifts in building materials, structural elements, and energy consumption patterns, all of which are driven by the economic activities of the human population. It is crucial to recognize that the indoor environment is intricately connected to external conditions. Therefore, understanding the factors that influence indoor thermal comfort is imperative when endeavouring to create a comfortable and health-promoting atmosphere within traditional Kerala courtyard houses. These factors encompass the microclimate of the site, including variables such as temperature, relative humidity, and wind patterns. These elements collectively contribute to the dynamic nature of the indoor thermal environment within these traditional tropical dwellings, underscoring the importance of considering them within the context of sustainability and comfort. Key Words: Vernacular Architecture, Thermal Comfort, Traditional Courtyard Houses, Climate Adaptation, Heritage.

Urban Domestic Courtyards in the Twenty-First Century: A Study of Changing Spatial Design and Activities

ABSTRACTThis study examines the impact of rapid urbanization and modern lifestyle changes on traditional urban courtyard houses in Mymensingh City, Bangladesh. Focusing on eight household-level courtyards established in the late twentieth century, the research analyzes their transformations in spatial design and activities from the 1970s to the 2023s. Through qualitative case studies and interviews, the study identifies that the existing courtyards are in a state of endangerment due to the rapid urban growth of the city. The study tracks the evolution of courtyards through three distinctive phases, reflecting changes in family dynamics, lifestyle preferences, and urbanization pressures. In Mymensingh city, traditional courtyard houses are gradually giving way to more compact household designs, with dining spaces taking precedence over the outdoor courtyard. The study highlights a significant shift in traditional courtyard activities and the emergence of new ones in response to changing lifestyles. However, accommodating these new activities within courtyards is also a challenge due to urban land constraints and surrounding tall constructions that limit courtyards’ original spatial quality and climatic performance. The findings emphasize the need for a balanced coexistence of vertical urbanization and traditional courtyard-based living. Architects and urban planners can use these insights to preserve traditional courtyards amidst rapid urban development, locally and in other regions where courtyard architecture is also threatened by rapid urbanization.

Syntactic Comparison of Traditional Courtyard and Modern Houses of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan

The purpose of this research is to investigate the syntactic characteristics of traditional and modern house plans in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan for the syntactic parameters influencing privacy. The design of homes has always considered the requirements of the people who live in them. Geographies, cultures, and communities have a diverse spatial configuration for the homes. Livelihood spaces have an established spatial order reflecting the society, social order as well as the personalities of the dwellers. This research used simulation and Floor plan drawings as the primary source of data for justifiable permeability graph-based space syntax analysis. Results show that modern houses offer better options for privacy due to the higher value of relative asymmetry (0.29) and greater tendency toward asymmetry as compared to traditional courtyard house layouts. The home with asymmetrical designs includes many control spaces, so entering other rooms requires crossing through the control spaces.

RESEARCH ON THE APPLICATION OF UAV OBLIQUE PHOTOGRAMMETRY TO LILONG HOUSING: TAKING MEILAN LANE AS AN EXAMPLE

Abstract. Vernacular architecture has always captured professionals’ attention for its unique approaches to construction, its typical way of integrating man and nature and the way it is used. Being a combination of traditional courtyard houses in China with townhouses in the West, Lilong houses or Shikumen houses are representatives of Shanghai vernacular housing. In terms of applying UAV oblique photogrammetry to preserving and documenting historic architectures, some studies have been done in China, but scant literatures are found on Lilong houses. This research is an attempt to preserve and document Lilong houses by adopting UAV in 3D modelling, to explore a rational approach for the application of UAV oblique photogrammetry to narrow lanes and to establish a collection of models to document the ongoing changes as well as nuances of each building more carefully. In this research, Meilan Lane is chosen as an example. Aided by AutoCAD drawings, flight routes and angles are designed. parameters for each flight are pre-set in GoodStation to send quantified instructions to the drone. A total of 4,531 photos are gathered and 4 models are built by ContextCapture Master. Two models with flight height at 40m and 115m are generated for macro-level study and two models with flight height from 20m to 32m are for micro-level study. Through this research, this paper elaborates the pros and cons of using UAV techniques in documenting Lilong residences and tries to find an applicable approach to building other Lilong complex models for more comprehensive studies in the long run.

Socio-Environmental Sustainability of Traditional Courtyard Houses of Lucknow and Varanasi

The courtyard houses have an important place in the history of architecture. They play a vital role in the social and environmental sustainability of that place. This paper aims to identify the significance of courtyards in composite climate by analyzing the associated space, function, courtyard configuration, and socio-cultural connections. Accordingly, eight courtyard houses of Lucknow and Varanasi (Uttar Pradesh, India) were selected for analysis based on their heritage value (in terms of age) and placement in the courtyard. Drawings of these houses were prepared through a site survey. Illumination data in the courtyard and adjacent spaces was measured through a lux meter. Various parameters of the courtyard, such as placement, size (length, breadth, and height), and connection to adjacent spaces, were analyzed through the above-collected data. The analysis concluded that the courtyard houses with NS orientation with significant height have good thermal comfort and daylight in the adjacent spaces.

The Effect of Probabilistic Window Opening Behavior of Occupants on Adaptive Thermal Comfort (The Case of Courtyard House in Yazd, Bandar Abbas, and Tabriz)

Considering the global energy crisis and the need to reduce energy consumption while providing thermal comfort to occupants, building performance prediction using building simulation programs requires higher accuracy of output data. Therefore, it seems necessary to study the impact of occupant behavior, which is the main source of uncertainty in residential buildings. The traditional courtyard houses, which are recognized as a successful passive house model, respond to different climatic conditions. Therefore, this research focuses on this building type to analyze occupant window opening control scenarios and determine which control works better. For this purpose, several probabilistic controls and their effects on the adaptive thermal comfort of occupants in zones around a central courtyard were compared in the three cities of Yazd, Bandar Abbas, and Tabriz. Energy Plus was used as a simulation program for the application of Grasshopper's energy management system (EMS) along with the Ladybug and Honeybee environmental plugins. The results show that the window control algorithms can increase the adaptive thermal comfort of occupants by 25.7%, 32.2%, and 20.3% in each of the climates of Yazd, Bandar Abbas, and Tabriz cities, respectively. Indoor and outdoor temperature were the most significant variables for opening windows in the warm and cold seasons, respectively.

Investigating DesignBuilder Simulation Software's Validation in Term of Heat Gain through Field Measured Data of Adjacent Rooms of Courtyard House

New designing techniques have been used recently in design phases of buildings to adapt human thermal comfort. Due to wide range of energy consumption within a building, it is impossible to make a proper decision about the impact of different energy efficiency strategies without simulation tools. Architects need to understand the accuracy and precision of simulation software to use them as valuable tools to predict energy consumption. This research aims to investigate the validity of DesignBuilder simulation software by using the actual traditional house in terms of heat gain. In this study, the comparative method was used to determine the differences in heat gain in a traditional courtyard house in Kerman that was simulated using DesignBuilder software and measured experimentally. This study also reveals that the difference between simulation results and empirical measurement is not more than 10%. It can be concluded that DesignBuilder has enough validity to calculate the amount of heat gain in the rooms adjacent to courtyards.

Energy efficient glazing: A comparison of microalgae photobioreactor and Iranian Orosi window designs

Orosi is a traditional Iranian window which is made of colorful glasses embedded in wooden latticed frame. This window was designed in traditional courtyard houses located in central Iran and behaved as a passive strategy to control light intensity, provide privacy and aesthetics. However, this type of window is rarely used nowadays due to a lack of acoustic and thermal insulation and high construction costs. This paper explores the possibility of using double-glazed window with colored microalgae inspired by Orosi to improve its light performance and energy consumption compared to the traditional Orosi window design A series of experimental tests and a set of computer simulations are conducted to evaluate and compare the two designs. The experimental results showed that while the light intensity in the indoor space is approximately equal to the corresponding magnitude measured for the Orosi window, the inside temperature witnessed a small increase approximately 1° Celsuis. Likewise, relative humidity, which has a significant impact on thermal comfort perceived by occupants, increased from 25% to nearly 70% in the algae window. Based on results obtained, nearly 500 ppm of CO2 was absorbed due to the low height of the photobioreactor. Results of computer simulations indicated that the amount of annual energy consumption in terms of cooling electric energy, heating fuel energy and electric equipment within the two simulated models were similar. However, the best performance of the colored algae window in terms of UDI was observed when the microalgae concentration was between 40% and 50%.

Scaling the living space: Zipf’s law for traditional courtyard houses in South China

In the traditional feudalistic society of China, there is a characteristic residential pattern of several core families with common ancestors living together in one house, as far as possible. Hence, the habitation of large families and their social dynamic always have a complex function and hierarchical structure. In this article, we consider a courtyard in South China as an example to enable a discussion of the mathematical relationship among the five basic functional spaces in it. Based on Zipf’s law, we find that the distribution of the five types of spaces, from large to small, can be described by the Pareto distribution with a shape parameter close to −1. Moreover, the Zipf parameters of different houses in the same area conform to the double Pareto distribution. This suggests that the size and shape of a residence also follows well-defined scaling laws. Additionally, it indicates that houses, at least traditional Chinese houses, have strong self-organization and self-similarity. It also shows that the power law of the Pareto distribution is applicable not only to the macro scale of the city but also the micro scale of housing.

Evaluation of the thermal performance of traditional courtyard houses in a warm humid climate: Colima, Mexico

With the recent need to decrease energy use and promote indoor thermal comfort in overheating conditions, attention has been drawn to the passive cooling function of courtyards. This paper aims to determine the effect of proportions and orientations of courtyards on the indoor thermal performance of traditional houses in a warm, humid region so that this could guide further improvement and reinterpretation of this building type. The results of this parametric study were obtained through computer simulations of different cases with the aim to determine the influence of orientation, courtyard size and proportions on the indoor thermal energy balance and thermal comfort of a traditional building in a warm-humid region. Rather than promote passive cooling in the building, the findings suggest that the courtyard greatly increases solar heat gain, raising the temperature during the day. Higher solar heat gains and ventilation rates were observed in the courtyard cases with greater width and length. Nevertheless, this does not cause important differences in the average operative temperature of the entire building between the cases. As for orientation, lower heat gains were obtained in courtyards with the long axis-oriented east to west. Regardless of the cases, the study finally emphasizes the importance of the inhabitants controlling the opening of windows in the enclosed rooms since this could decrease the temperature by 1.1 °C from night to the early morning (23.00 hrs to 11.00hrs) and thus influence its thermal comfort. Conversely, opening the windows outside that time-lapse could cause an increase in temperature and more hours above the upper comfort limit.

Private open space as a reflection of culture: the example of traditional courtyard houses in Nigeria

PurposeThe courtyard form of the traditional African house responds to people's culture and traditions. Nevertheless, in the era of globalization, the private open space (POS) is fast disappearing in African homes due to neglect and lack of awareness of its value. This study, thus, aims to explore how culture relates to open space design in traditional houses of three major ethnic groups (Hausa-Fulani, Yoruba and Igbo) in Nigeria. This is with a view to encouraging planners and designers to create open spaces in housing developments according to people's cultural values and needs.Design/methodology/approachThis study is based on qualitative and quantitative research approaches involving a literature review, focus group discussions and a questionnaire survey. The quantitative survey was designed based on the literature review of the concept of culture and the use of space in traditional courtyard houses. Focus group discussions were conducted to identify the specific cultural components that dictated the use of the courtyard as a POS in the Nigerian context. Subsequently, a questionnaire survey was carried out to determine the importance of each cultural component in the outdoor sociospatial design. Through systematic sampling, one of every five traditional houses in the study area was selected to determine where respondents were surveyed.FindingsThe results reveal that the cultural components that influenced the design and use of the open space were gender and privacy, family and social relations, religious practice and belief, and status and lifestyle. However, the importance attached to each of the cultural components varied from one culture to another in Nigeria. The findings also showed that the open space is used for a variety of purposes, such as ancestral worship, family gatherings and reunions, small-scale ceremonies, and leisure activities.Research limitations/implicationsThis study offers professional planners and designers helpful insights to protect culture in housing development and improve daily living in residential environments.Originality/valueBased on Amos Rapoport's theoretical framework, this study dismantles the concept of “culture” into different components and examines how they affect outdoor sociospatial design in a developing country. The study also provides researchers with ideas and inspiration to study the culture of POSs in traditional housing.

Exploring the spatial structure of Toon historical town courtyard houses: topological characteristics of the courtyard based on a configuration approach

PurposeIn response, this study developed a mathematical and computational method, through spatial configurations with justified plan graph (JPG), drawn from Space Syntax to extract essential information of the spatial topology of 13 valuable traditional courtyard houses located in Toon historical city of Iran.Design/methodology/approachHistorical vernacular housing has always been designed to incorporate and reflect the local lifestyle and cultural conditions. “Courtyard” is a fundamental part of traditional Iranian houses. This traditional building type includes a walled boundary and a complex of open, semi-enclosed and enclosed spaces. This study investigates the traditional houses in Toon historical town. Toon is one of the ancient towns in southeast Iran, including old courtyard houses in its heritage context. The spatial influence of the courtyard contributes to the formation of this famous architectural type.FindingsThe results show the remarkable impact of this space on dominating the plan of traditional Toon houses configuration compared to other spaces in all cases. Furthermore, spatial accessibility has changed over time, and the Safavid period had a higher level of integration and lower level of accessibility (mean i = 7.03) rather than the Qajar period (mean i = 6.34); also, privacy has decreased progressively.Originality/valueThe knowledge of characteristics of this historical architecture needs to be gathered for the preservation and conservation of the built heritage. Hence, the principle behind traditional Iranian courtyards was investigated to recognize the difference between the spatial influence of the courtyard and other spaces and the changes in the courtyard over time.

Investigating Sustainability of the Traditional Courtyard Houses Using Deep Beauty Framework

In Pakistan, power outages have become frequent over the past two decades, due to a continuing energy crisis. Reliance on machines for thermal comfort of buildings has led to high energy demands of the increasing population. The negative impacts of artificial environments have, also, diminished the sense of place, biophilia and cultural values. Moreover, globalization has standardized the built environments, causing a lack of regional identity and an absence of climate sensitivity in design. Keeping all these issues in focus, this article re-examines the fundamental aspects of traditional architecture and aims to stimulate architects and designers to create sustainable and life-enriching designs, which are appropriate for contemporary times. In this research, the first two levels of Deep Beauty (functional and typological) are used, as a conceptual framework for sustainable design, to analyse a representative of a traditional courtyard house. In conjunction with the theoretical underpinnings of the Deep Beauty framework, the analysis utilizes photographs, drawings, and diagrams to support the arguments. The research shows that the traditional courtyard house possesses numerous attributes of sustainable design, which can be incorporated into contemporary house design.

The possible application of intelligent systems in traditional courtyard houses in Iraq

The focus on the Intelligent System (IS) in our existing types of building is a question of suitability, rather than creativity to enhance the building performance. This research explores the possible application of IS in improving the performance of courtyard houses in Baghdad, Iraq by answering the research two questions which are Q1: What does the traditional courtyard house (TCH) contain that should enhanced its performance? Q2: How (IS) could be added to the TCH in Iraq? The investigation which was done through literature review of courtyard houses type as seen beside intelligent building is supported by case studies investigation 12 (TCH) in Al-Kadhimiya through physical survey, observation, and documentation, in addition to 24 semi structure interviews with occupants of the same houses, and then using the qualitative method to analyse the data collection. The key findings highlight the need for adding new systems and architectural values to such TCH which is the basis of adding intelligence systems in such houses to enhance their performance. This could be improving the partial control of the environment related to structure and materials; decreasing the environmental challenges related to the ease of making modifications, the role of government regulations, and modernization requirements. Minimizing social struggles related to the idea of place psychology. Therefore, the current study concludes that the TCH could be as a contender of IS to enhance its performance through retrofit of such houses that contain high architectural value and re-build these houses with low architectural value and slum structure.

Energy-saving potential of deeply retrofitting building enclosures of traditional courtyard houses – A case study in the Chinese Hot-Summer-Cold-Winter zone

It is increasingly believed that energy retrofits are a protection tool to preserve cultural heritage for future generations. However, few studies are available regarding the deep retrofits of traditional courtyard houses in the Chinese Hot-Summer-Cold-Winter zone, although the winter conditions in these buildings are very uncomfortable based on existing studies. Besides, few studies analyzed the actual energy performance of still-occupied traditional buildings in this region. Therefore, this study investigated the energy-saving potential of deeply retrofitting the building enclosures of a traditional courtyard house in Tongren in southern China. The investigation was based on calibrated hygrothermal simulation with WUFI®Plus applying the multi-zone airflow modeling. For the calibration, short-term monitoring (two weeks) was conducted in winter and measured the air temperature, relative humidity, and heating energy consumption. The calibration showed satisfactory results by assessing the Normalized-Mean-Bias-Error, the Coefficient of Variation of Root-Mean-Square Error, and the Coefficient of determination. In contrast, the application of Goodness of Fit shows poorer performance and requires further discussion for short monitoring periods. According to this study, improving the U-values of building envelopes to meet at least the current Chinese energy-efficiency standard can reduce more than 56% energy demand for heating and cooling, with an estimated payback time of 2.5 years for the material cost. With growing expectations of building occupants on indoor thermal comfort, the improvement of the energy performance of traditional buildings will become more critical for their long-term preservation and should be implemented in China's energy efficiency policies and initiatives in the future.