Trade Relations Research Articles

Uzbekistan's Integration into the International Financial System and its Role in Developing Entrepreneurship

This article discusses the activities of international integration associations, the necessity of developing trade relations with the countries included in these associations, as well as the importance of enhancing cooperative relationships with international financial organizations. The article highlights the increasing connection of our independent republic with major global financial institutions and international Islamic financial funds. Consequently, this development enables Uzbek entrepreneurs to access the global market, produce goods that meet international standards, and ultimately contributes to the economic and social prosperity of the republic. It also explains how small and medium-sized enterprises in Uzbekistan can achieve significant success.

Communities beyond geographical limitation: The network characteristics of international wildlife trade under the pandemic

The international wildlife trade, contributing billions of dollars to global economies and encompassing thousands of species, has increased due to rising demands for wildlife products. Revealing the key participants and trade characteristics across taxa is imperative for sustaining wildlife resources and conservation efforts. To provide a basis for informed wildlife management and trade supervision, we investigated the global wildlife trade's fundamental characteristics and spatial patterns by analyzing transaction records reported to The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) from 2020 to 2022. During this period, the essential demands for wildlife were highlighted due to stricter trade regulations and higher trade costs in response to the suspected wildlife origin of the pandemic. Our analysis highlights the formation of trade communities that are tightly interconnected by strong trade relations in wildlife trade networks, transcending geographical limitations. Unlike the division of the continents, geographical proximity alone does not necessarily contribute to the formation of these trade communities. Germany emerges as the leading importer based on trade frequency, while the Netherlands leads in exports. The main driving forces behind wildlife trades include commercial use (74.98 %), personal use (3.80 %), and hunting trophies (3.19 %). Apart from 44.90 % of flora trades, Reptilia was the primary traded taxa (21.08 %), involving 196 engaged countries/territories with the most mutual connections (27.21 %) and an average of 12.51 shipments to 11.33 nodes. Aves (9.70 %), Mammalia (9.44 %), and Anthozoa (7.62 %) followed. Notably, certain European and Asian countries/territories dominate the import or export of most trades, exhibiting distinct variations across taxa. The United Arab Emirates led the Aves trade, accounting for 15.96 % of global Aves transactions during this period. Similarly, Italy led the Reptilia trades (21.28 %), South Africa led the Mammalia trades (18.72 %), and Indonesia led the trades in Insecta (56.84 %), Hydrozoa (66.96 %), and Anthozoa (56.12 %). Our findings underscore the traded species facing overexploited and the countries most involved, thereby informing proactive monitoring and policy-making for sustainable wildlife conservation and management.

The Relationship Between Business Competition Law and Commercial Law in Ensuring Healthy Business Competition in the Market

This research aims to discuss the relationship between business competition law and trade law in realizing healthy business competition in Indonesia. The method used is literature study through document review, such as journals, books and related literature. The results of the discussion show that business competition law, which is regulated in Law no. 5 of 1999, aims to prevent monopoly and unfair competition practices. The basic principles include freedom of business, healthy competition, efficiency and openness. Meanwhile, commercial law regulates legal relations in trade, providing order and legal certainty for business actors. These two areas of law complement each other in creating a healthy and just economic system. Business competition law plays a role in preventing unhealthy business practices and promoting efficiency, while trade law regulates commercial transactions and legal relations between business actors. Both contribute to protecting consumers, increasing economic efficiency, and promoting sustainable economic growth. It can be concluded that business competition law and trade law have an important and complementary role in creating a healthy and conducive business climate for economic growth in Indonesia. Harmonization and effective law enforcement in these two fields is the key to realizing healthy and fair business competition.

Tensions In Eu-China Trade Relations: The Impact Of China's Competitive Advantage In Strategic Industries”

This article reviews trade tensions between the European Union (EU) and China triggered by China's dominance in strategic industries. In the face of an increasingly tense situation, careful policy analysis is needed to proactively manage the complex relationship with China. This research aims to highlight the root causes behind trade conflicts, as well as identify strategies for managing tensions wisely while encouraging mutually beneficial economic cooperation. With a cross-disciplinary approach, this research proposes a framework to reduce the risk of escalation of trade conflicts between the EU and China. Through emphasizing the importance of rigorous policy analysis and innovative solutions, this article highlights the urgency of appropriate policies to maintain domestic economic stability and balanced international relations in the face of challenges from China's economic dominance.

Acceleration of diversification of foreign trade relations of Central-Eastern European countries in crisis periods and the role of Russia in this process

Aim. To show the acceleration of diversification of trade relations diversification of Central­Eastern European (CEE) countries in crisis periods (2009-2012, 2017-2023) and to determine the importance of Russia in this process.Objectives. To analyze the dynamics of the main indicators of trade of CEE countries with some regions of the world, including China and Russia.Methods. The authors applied such research methods as statistical analysis, generalization, description and graphical modeling.Results. The results of the analysis show that as the foreign trade potential of the European Union (EU) closed market is exhausted, CEE countries are forced to diversify their trade rela­tions, expanding them towards other regions of the world.Conclusions. The diversification process intensifies in times of crisis, when conditions for regular cooperation within the EU deteriorate due to the economic downturn. This can be traced back to the global financial and economic crisis of 2008-2009 and is happening now (2022-2024), in the context of geopolitical tensions. Along with the decreasing share of the EU in the CEE countries' trade turnover, their trade interaction with other regions, mainly with Asia, is ex­panding. Among the countries targeted by the CEE diversification vector, one can single out China with the largest volume of mutual trade and Russia, whose importance has sharply de­clined in recent years due to the harsh sanctions imposed against it.

Mitigating the rise of unilateralism: lessons from forestry management

Abstract This article responds to the rise in unilateralism in trade policy (particularly from the EU and USA) and considers how its negative effects, especially concerning developing countries, can be mitigated through the use of instruments of trade law in the practice of economic diplomacy. It does this in three steps: first, it challenges the dichotomy between unilateral and plurilateral approaches to trade policy, and reframes this rise in unilateralism as conceptually and practically linked to the increasing plurality of trade law’s actors, sources, and institutions (the plural-unilateral dynamic); second, trade in forest products is used as a case study to examine this dynamic, identifying underlying tensions in the use of unilateral and plurilateral policies as well as potential mechanisms of accommodation; finally, in step three, the article identifies two related avenues of accommodation to improve participation and engagement—leveraging structures of meta-governance in trade (dialogues, committees, and standards bodies). In doing so, this article both reframes debates around unilateralism and plurilateralism in trade law and policy, and places the hitherto underexplored practice of economic diplomacy at the heart of means to improve trade relations.

The Romania-Brazil Trade Relationship under the Threat of the Coronavirus Pandemic and the War in Ukraine

Abstract The year 2020 began with a health crisis, asserted in the same year, as the coronavirus pandemic. In this sense, world governments have taken measures to protect their national economies, measures such as limiting exports or social distancing. In 2022, the economy showed signs of recovery, when in February, war broke out between Ukraine and Russia. Thus, the two events negatively impacted world trade. In this paper, the aim is to point out the impact of the health, economic and war crisis on Romania-Brazil commercial relations, in the period 2019–2023, on Brazilian investments in Romania and on Romanian investments in Brazil. Romania is part of the European Union, being also a military, humanitarian and economic support for Ukrainians. Otherwise, Brazil is part of a totally different political structure, being a partner and ally of Russia. A descriptive research will be carried out on Romania-Brazil trade, in the period 2019–2023, based on the information on the Comexstat platform. In order to identify Brazilian investments in Romania, the research will be carried out conformable of the information provided by the National Trade Registry Office, and the research on Romanian investments in Brazil will be carried out conformable of the information provided by Banco Central do Brasil. The year 2023 represents the best economic year for trade between Romania and Brazil from the period 2019–2023, as commercial exchanges increased by 16% in 2023, compared to 2019. Regarding Brazilian investments in Romania, they are increasing, but Romanian investments in Brazil are decreasing. This work is innovative, because it sheds light on the commercial relationship between two countries with a similar culture, during a period of crisis, countries that are located in two different political and ideological blocs.

Retailers' Response to Digital Transformation in the Industry: A Manager's Perspective

Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, work disruptions were primarily linked to emerging technologies and expanding trade relations. However, the pandemic has highlighted the significance of the physical aspect of work. This study examines the effects of the growing prevalence of e-commerce in the retail sector by gathering insights from 20 retail managers. The participants were asked to provide their perspectives on the industry's transformation driven by digital advancements. The content analysis shows that the retail industry is changing rapidly and requires a deeper understanding of its driving forces. To keep up with the industry's digital power, future workforce management must implement appropriate strategies. One such strategy is transitioning to the future of work, which requires retail workers to acquire new skills to keep up with technological changes. To remain competitive, retailers must re-examine the in-store shopping experience. Strategic decisions should be made to optimize the workforce and focus on smarter operations. Effective inventory management can be a key differentiator for stores in a competitive market. With the right information, managers can make more informed business decisions. Digitizing the workforce can enhance employee engagement and productivity, resulting in cost savings that can be redirected to improving the customer experience. Further research is required to generalize the findings of this study. This can assist retailers in planning their business to achieve operational efficiency while remaining competitive.

Russian-Spanish Relations During the Development of North American Territories in the Second Half of the 18th century

The article is about the relations between Russia and Spain in the second half of the 18th century. The article identifies the factors that influenced the nature of the emerging interaction between the powers: it shows the ambivalence of Russian-Spanish relations, on the one hand, due to the growing fears of the Spanish authorities provoked by Russia’s advance towards California, and, on the other, to the development of mutually beneficial trade relations. We draw attention to aspects related to Russia’s discovery of the Aleutian archipelago and Alaska and the activity of Russian merchants. The reaction of the Spanish court to messages of Spanish diplomats in Russia about Russian discoveries in America is shown. The analysis of the texts of diplomatic reports (1761−1792) has shown that the Spanish ambassadors were skeptical about the success of Russian expeditions to the American continent but changed their mind in the second half of 1760s. The article also examines the trade and economic aspect in the relations between the powers, showing the intention of Spain and Russia to establish direct trade. At the same time, we note that the nature of such interaction was influenced by the general political situation, which was determined by the leading powers of that time. The article has been written using historical and philological methods and approaches and aims to show the various aspects and stages of Russian-Spanish relations during the period of colonization of the Northwest of America. The results of the study can be used in practical activities of diplomatic services within the framework of international dialogue.

A Study on Promoting Economic and Trade Relations between Korea and Honduras

A Study on Promoting Economic and Trade Relations between Korea and Honduras

Cross-Border Trade Disputes: A Comparative Analysis of Indonesia and Australia

This comparative analysis delves into the intricate landscape of cross-border trade disputes, focusing on Indonesia and Australia. As two significant players in the global trade arena, understanding their dispute resolution mechanisms is crucial for fostering bilateral and multilateral trade relationships. The study examines the legal frameworks, institutional mechanisms, and cultural factors influencing trade dispute resolution in both countries. Indonesia's approach may reflect its unique socio-political context, while Australia's system could showcase its commitment to transparency and adherence to international trade norms. Key aspects explored include the role of governmental bodies, such as trade ministries and dispute settlement panels, as well as the utilization of alternative dispute resolution methods like arbitration and mediation. Moreover, the analysis delves into the effectiveness and efficiency of these mechanisms in resolving disputes promptly while maintaining fairness and equity for all parties involved. Comparisons are drawn between Indonesia and Australia in terms of legal precedents, enforcement mechanisms, and the level of stakeholder engagement in the dispute resolution process. Additionally, cultural nuances and historical contexts are considered to understand how these factors shape the negotiation and resolution of trade conflicts. By synthesizing these insights, the study aims to provide policymakers, trade practitioners, and academics with a comprehensive understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of each country's approach to cross-border trade dispute resolution. Ultimately, it seeks to contribute to the development of best practices and strategies for enhancing trade relations and promoting economic cooperation between Indonesia and Australia, as well as other nations globally.

Does one good turn deserve another? Evidence from China’s trade and aid policy

ABSTRACT In this article, we explore the effects of China’s foreign aid on its exports. To do this, we use a sample of 165 countries during the period 2000–2014 and employ a gravity model. We find that the return on Chinese exports for every dollar spent on foreign aid is from $0.156 to $0.4, at the aggregate level. The aid provided in past periods continues to promote China’s exports. We also show, while taking into account aid heterogeneity, that China experiences a higher return in terms of exports when providing development aid intended for infrastructure, to the recipients. Additionally, we find that China’s international aid helps the country to trade more with similar income-level economies. Hence, it can, to a certain extent, foster South-South trade relations.

Paying for protection: bilateral trade with an alliance leader and defense spending of minor partners

Military spending was the main government expenditure until the 20th century, and it still represents a significant fraction of most governments’ budgets. We develop a theoretical model to understand how both military and trade alliances with military leaders can impact defense spending. By increasing the costs of military aggression by a non-ally, an alliance reduces the probability of war and allows minor partners reducing their military spending in exchange for a stronger trade relationship with an alliance leader and a higher trading surplus for the latter. We test our hypotheses with data on 138 countries for 1996–2020. Our results show that the importance of the trade relationship and the trade balance with the military alliance leader is a significant driver of military spending. The greater the weight of trade with the military leader and the higher its trade surplus, the lower is the defense spending of the minor partner.

Logistics Performance Index of Africa: An Indicator for Türkiye and Africa Trade Relations?

The logistics performance of countries is important in trade flows. As part of the supply chain process, logistics is the backbone of trade processes. In this direction, the Logistics Performance Index (LPI) put forward by the World Bank can be considered as an indicator. With the LPI, countries have the opportunity to evaluate the effectiveness of their activities in trade and logistics. The aim of the study is to rank and analyze African countries with the integrated Entropy-MOORA Reference Approach using the LPI values for 2023. In order to increase the depth of the study, an evaluation is made based on the trade data between Türkiye and African countries for 2022. The study aims to rank African countries on the basis of six criteria defined by the MOORA Reference Approach and to provide a perspective on the development of Türkiye’s trade relations with African countries in line with trade figures. According to the results of the study, South Africa ranks first, Botswana second, and Libya last in the ranking of LPI countries. Türkiye’s trade volume with the continent, South Africa ranks fifth, Botswana fifty-third, and Libya third. Therefore, there is no correlation between LPI and trade data in current situation.

Kebijakan Perdagangan Uni Eropa terhadap Produk Logam Dasar

Trade relations between the European Union and China experienced rapid growth during the first two decades of the 21st century. The increase in trade relations is in line with the implementation of EU trade barriers through anti-dumping investigation reports at the World Trade Organization (WTO) against Chinese products. In the period 2001 – 2022, Chinese base metal products became the commodity with the most reported cases in antidumping investigations carried out by the EU at the WTO. However, in the same period, the value of imports of basic metal products to the European Union was lower compared to the value of imports of other products such as electricity & equipment as well as machine products, nuclear reactors and boilers. This article aims to explain the reasons behind the European Union's stance in making Chinese base metal products the most common commodity in antidumping investigation reports at the WTO. This article uses Alan Bryman's qualitative method, and the neoclassical realism theory proposed by Gideon Rose to analyze European Union policy towards Chinese Base Metal Products. The application of systemic pressure variables in neoclassical realism theory influences the European Union's position in the international system as an external factor, while there are other variables, in this case internal factors, which also influence the European Union's strategic trade policy-making process through the European Commission. The findings of this article show that China's dominance in world metals consumption and production since the early 2000s, especially in the 2013 – 2017 period, triggered the European Commission's perception that the European base metals industry was experiencing a decline in competitiveness and needed protection. In the 2013-2017 period, China's contribution to the world base metals market increased by 13% compared to 8% in the previous decade. On the other hand, the European Commission has maximized its influence in mobilizing national forces as outlined in the resolution document 2017/C399/12 to build a sustainable base metals industry. The European Union's trade policy in making Chinese base metal products the highest case report in antidumping investigations at the WTO over the last two decades, was driven by the European Commission, as the trade policy formulation unit in the European Union, to respond to systemic challenges in the global base metals market.

A political economy analysis of changes and continuities in Iran–Africa trade relations: a case of South–South dependency?

This paper provides a political economy analysis of the bilateral trade relations and patterns of exchange that existed between Iran and Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) from 1962 to 2021. The paper contributes to the growing literature on Iran–Africa relations by empirically delineating not just the changes, but also the continuities between Iran and its African trading partners before and after the Iranian Revolution. It also adds nuance to the broader scholarship on South–South cooperation by showing the disparity between the rhetoric of South–South solidarity and reciprocity between Iran and SSA, on one side, and their low and fluctuating trade volumes, on the other. These volumes resulted from historical inertia or path dependency and structural factors, including trade complementarities and geopolitical conditions, more than demographic, cultural, or religious realities. They were also shaped by the agency and decision-making of Iranian and African leaders and officials regarding the extent to economically engage with each other.

АНАЛИЗ ЛОГИСТИЧЕСКИХ РИСКОВ В УСЛОВИЯХ ПЕРЕОРИЕНТАЦИИ ГРУЗОПОТОКОВ В ВОСТОЧНОМ НАПРАВЛЕНИИ

The Russian market for logistics services is undergoing significant changes. In the context of political pressure from a number of foreign countries and the imposition of a large number of sanctions against the Russian Federation, as well as taking into account the differences in the needs of individual regions and the characteristics of foreign trade relations, there is a sharp reorientation of cargo flows in the eastern direction. Such dramatic changes in supply chains occur in parallel with a significant increase in logistics risks, which raises the issue of their timely and comprehensive analysis. Taking into account the peculiarities of the geographical location of the Russian Federation, railway transport, along with road transport, plays a vital role in organizing the transportation process of various types of goods. Therefore, the analysis of open data from official sources on the transportation of container cargo through the network of JSC Russian Railways was chosen as the methodological basis of the paper. Based on data from the container shipping market, an analysis of existing logistics risks, as well as the factors that provoke their emergence, is provided. The key risks in logistics include transport, warehouse, procurement and distribution logistics risks, and uncertainty, chance and resistance are identified as the main factors of their occurrence. The paper outlines the importance of minimizing logistics risks when organizing the transportation process in the eastern direction of Russia and provides a number of ways to reduce the likelihood of risk occurrence. One of these methods is risk dissipation. The implementation of this method is shown by the example of the implementation of an organizational group of activities at the Eastern training ground, which allows reducing the load on the railway and port infrastructure. As a result, the likelihood of risk occurring in logistics processes is reduced.

The Liberating Effects of Nigeria to African Continental Free Trade Area: Synoptic Perspectives

This article examines the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA), with special attention to its goals, background, challenges, and effects on Nigeria. Africa has abundant natural resources and a diverse range of cultures, but it also faces challenges like poor infrastructure and ineffective governments, which limit trade throughout the continent. Recall, AfCFTA was created in 2018 with the intention of creating a competitive single African market by eliminating tariffs and other barriers. The AfCFTA aims to eliminate tariffs, standardize customs procedures, resolve disputes amicably, and cooperate in addressing technical barriers. Hence, this study delved into the synoptic perspective of the liberating impacts of the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) agreement., especially on Nigeria trade relations. The liberation needed cloches were: weak infrastructure development, slow trade facilitation, and under standardization. Hence, by economically engaging in AfCFTA, created pathway for access to more affordable goods. Although, unfulfilled trade obligations posed a cog on the implementation Wheel. However, liberation is set for infrastructure development, increased exports, better trade facilitation, and institutional development Keywords: Africa; Economic Liberation; Nigeria; Free trade

Hegemonizm państw Zachodu wobec chińskiej polityki w Hongkongu

Hong Kong is one of the world’s largest financial centers, a source of many multinational organizations, banks, companies, etc. Since the beginning of June 2019, mass protests have taken place in Hong Kong, during which there have been violent fights between demonstrators and the police. These protests, as well as the trade war and the growing tension between Washington and Beijing, aroused the anxiety of foreign investors and led to the collapse of Hong Kong’s economy. The article presents the hegemonism of the United States, which decided to use these protests to expand their political and economic influence and interfered without reason in the internal affairs of the PRC. Similarly, the policy of the EU countries, which are so eager to criticize Poland for the lack of the rule of law, in this case was limited to admonishing China for fear of deteriorating mutual trade relations. The main hypothesis of the article is that even if Hong Kong’s status as a financial center suffers some negative impact due to US sanctions, its negative impact on China as a whole, will be quite limited and will only hit Hong Kong’s speculative capital. On the basis of the conducted studies, it can be assumed that the new area of the conflict between the US and the PRC will strengthen Chinese totalitarianism in Hong Kong, which comes down to the total subordination of the individual and all manifestations of social life to the state power. This thesis is in line with the statement by Liu Guangyuan, China’s ambassador in Poland, stating in regard to recent events that: “Hong Kong must be ruled by patriots”. Reports from renowned research centers predict that the next decades of world politics will be marked by Washington’s competition with Beijing. The aggressive rivalry that turns into an open confrontation between the US, Western countries and China opens a dangerous new chapter in modern history.

Needs Analysis for University EFL Learners Majoring in Business English: A Scoping Review of Research and Practice

In the context of international economic integration, Business English (BE) has played an increasingly significant role in business settings because BE is considered as a global communicative means, helping business transactions happen effectively among economies all over the world. In Vietnam, BE has been used more and more in trade transactions because Vietnam’s economy has explosively developed and Vietnam has expanded its international trade relations over the last ten years. The aim of the paper is to analyze and synthesize the needs analysis for EFL learners majoring in Business English globally. The results of the paper help higher education in Vietnam see the importance of needs analysis in ESP, needs analysis approaches, theoretical frameworks including target situation analysis (TSA), present situation analysis (PSA), learning situation analysis (LSA), then evaluate existing materials or coursebooks and adapt to create better universities’ curricula to meet the linguistic requirements in the workplaces in Vietnam.