Orchid Trade Research Articles

Orchidinae-205: A new genome-wide custom bait set for studying the evolution, systematics, and trade of terrestrial orchids.

Terrestrial orchids are a group of genetically understudied, yet culturally and economically important plants. The Orchidinae tribe contains many species that produce edible tubers that are used for the production of traditional delicacies collectively called 'salep'. Overexploitation of wild orchids in the Eastern Mediterranean and Western Asia threatens to drive many of these species to extinction, but cost-effective tools for monitoring their trade are currently lacking. Here we present a custom bait kit for target enrichment and sequencing of 205 novel genetic markers that are tailored to phylogenomic applications in Orchidinae s.l. A subset of 31 markers capture genes putatively involved in the production of glucomannan, a water-soluble polysaccharide that gives salep its distinctive properties. We tested the kit on 73 taxa native to the area, demonstrating universally high locus recovery irrespective of species identity, that exceeds the total sequence length obtained with alternative kits currently available. Phylogenetic inference with concatenation and coalescent approaches was robust and showed high levels of support for most clades, including some which were previously unresolved. Resolution for hybridizing and recently radiated lineages remains difficult, but could be further improved by analysing multiple haplotypes and the non-exonic sequences captured by our kit, with the promise to shed new light on the evolution of enigmatic taxa with a complex speciation history. Offering a step-up from traditional barcoding and universal markers, the genome-wide custom loci targeted by Orchidinae-205 are a valuable new resource to study the evolution, systematics and trade of terrestrial orchids.

Orchid trade at the source: Epiphytic species with conspicuous flowers in low‐elevation forests are more locally collected in a Philippine key biodiversity area

AbstractOrchids are the most heavily traded plant group globally, putting pressure on wild populations in many source countries like the Philippines. Despite its rich orchid diversity, there remains a notable gap in understanding the factors driving orchid trade within the country. To address this knowledge gap and support orchid conservation efforts, we utilized a 5‐year orchid diversity dataset extensively collected through floristic field and village garden surveys in one of the largest key biodiversity areas in the southern Philippines. We employed a trait‐based approach to investigate ecological drivers of local orchid collection within this source area. Our results show that around 36% of local orchid diversity have predicted collection risks of ≥50%. Notably, locally collected orchid species exhibited multiple, large, and conspicuously colored flowers that are found in low‐elevation forests and higher up in forest stratum. Elevational distribution and flower size emerged as the strongest predictors, potentially influencing collection preferences. Our analysis of predicted collection risks underscores the vulnerability of both threatened and non‐threatened orchid species to local collection pressures. Moreover, we highlight the practical utility of our trait‐based approach in predicting risks and informing management strategies for local orchid conservation. This research marks a significant step toward identifying ecological drivers influencing orchid trade at its source, providing insights that can inform targeted conservation strategies across many key biodiversity areas for this highly diverse, charismatic, and threatened plant family.

Circumscription, First Confirmed Locality, and Conservation Status of Dracula anthracina (Orchidaceae)

Abstract— Thirteen species (18%) in the genus Dracula (Orchidaceae) in Colombia lack basic information about their ecology and biogeography. Dracula anthracina has remained as a charismatic market-valued species with no information on its natural habitat. We found the precise location of D. anthracina in explorations across the Colombian eastern Cordillera. Our observations of wild populations and cultivated plants suggest that D. nigritella should be reduced to a synonym of D. anthracina based on morphological characters. Furthermore, the species seems to be rare, geographically restricted, and has small populations. Hence, we suggest that D. anthracina should be considered of conservation concern and should be excluded from Ecuador’s flora. Keywords—Andes, Cloud Forest, habitat loss, orchid trade, taxonomy.

Making sense of domestic wildlife and CITES legislation: The example of Nepal's orchids

Governing wildlife resources is a global challenge, with illegal domestic and international trade emerging as a leading threat to biodiversity. This has prompted a range of international conservation commitments and domestic legislation, including protected species lists and legislation associated with the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). Despite their importance, heavy focus on national-level legislation potentially belies the complex networks of sub-national legislation that often inform on-the-ground wildlife management decisions. We highlight the need for a detailed understanding of sub-national legislation in order to meaningfully understand legal and illegal wildlife trade. We demonstrate this using the example of orchids – representing >70 % of all CITES-listed species – and focus on Nepal, a wildlife trade hotspot. We describe the available evidence on the country's overlapping legal and illegal orchid trade and provide a structured analysis of 55 pieces of domestic legislation that govern the country's orchid resources. It is likely that other countries and taxa face similar levels of complexity, and we propose an approach for more thorough and systematic evaluations of sub-national legislation – across areas of law, hierarchical levels of governance, and types of legislation.

Deficiencies in compliance with environmental regulation for orchid trade via social networks in Mexico

Background: Online commerce (e-commerce) includes wild orchids, but it may constitute illicit trade and a risk for its conservation. In Mexico, the magnitude of this e-commerce, if it shows to be illicit, and how environmental crimes are constituted according to the country's regulations are unknown.
 Questions: How many orchid species are offered in e-commerce? Where do the offers originate? Does this trade become a scenario for environmental crimes? What differences are there in the seller profile and earnings between e-commerce and traditional markets?
 Studied species: Orchids commercialized in social networks of Mexico.
 Study site and dates: Mexican states with orchid e-commerce, October-December 2020.
 Methods: Three e-commerce platforms were reviewed, documenting species richness, active sellers, points of sale and verifying compliance with environmental regulations. We compared the orchid richness and prices in e-commerce with those registered in traditional markets in Mexico.
 Results: We registered 344 publications, 164 orchid taxa, half Mexican native and 39 hybrids. These offers do not always originate in areas of high orchid richness. In Mexico, orchid management for commercial purposes requires registration and consent of the environmental authority, but no seller has provided evidence regarding it. Prices are higher in e-commerce than in traditional markets.
 Conclusions: e-commerce offers orchid varieties (native, nonnative, hybrid) and traditional markets only native. Because in e-commerce sellers do not provide evidence of compliance with the environmental regulations, the digital platforms prompt environmental crimes.

Genetic diversity and structure in two epiphytic orchids from the montane forests of southern Ecuador: The role of overcollection on Masdevallia rosea in comparison with the widespread Pleurothallis lilijae.

Ecuador has a high diversity of orchids, but little is known about levels of genetic diversity for the great majority of species. Understanding how orchids might adapt to changes is crucial as deforestation and fragmentation of forest ecosystems threaten the survival of many epiphytic orchids that depend on other species, such as fungi and their host trees, for germination, growth, and establishment. Overcollection and the illegal trade are also major concerns for the survival of wild populations of orchids. Despite increasing awareness, effective interventions are often limited by a lack of data concerning the impacts that overexploitation might have. To fill this gap, we tested the effects of overcollection in the genetic diversity and structure of Masdevallia rosea, a narrow distributed epiphytic orchid historically collected in Ecuador, in comparison with the widely distributed Pleurothallis lilijae. Genotyping based on AFLPs showed reduced levels of diversity in wild populations but most especially in the overcollected, M. rosea. Overall, genetic admixture was high in P. lilijae segregating populations by altitude levels while fewer genetic groups were found in M. rosea. Genetic differentiation was low in both species. A spatial genetic structure was found in P. lilijae depending on altitude levels, while no spatial genetic structure was found in M. rosea. These results suggest different scenarios for the two species: while gene flow over long distance is possible in P. lilijae, the same seems to be unlikely in M. rosea possibly due to the low levels of individuals in the known populations. In situ and ex situ conservation strategies should be applied to protect the genetic pool in these epiphytic orchid species, and to promote the connectivity between wild populations. Adopting measures to reduce overexploitation and to understand the impacts of harvesting in wild populations are necessary to strengthen the legal trade of orchids.

Trade of native orchids on Chinese online platforms

Trade of native orchids on Chinese online platforms

DNA barcoding of medicinal orchids in Asia

Growing popularity of herbal medicine has increased the demand of medicinal orchids in the global markets leading to their overharvesting from natural habitats for illegal trade. To stop such illegal trade, the correct identification of orchid species from their traded products is a foremost requirement. Different species of medicinal orchids are traded as their dried or fresh parts (tubers, pseudobulbs, stems), which look similar to each other making it almost impossible to identify them merely based on morphological observation. To overcome this problem, DNA barcoding could be an important method for accurate identification of medicinal orchids. Therefore, this research evaluated DNA barcoding of medicinal orchids in Asia where illegal trade of medicinal orchids has long existed. Based on genetic distance, similarity-based and tree-based methods with sampling nearly 7,000 sequences from five single barcodes (ITS, ITS2, matK, rbcL, trnH-psbA and their seven combinations), this study revealed that DNA barcoding is effective for identifying medicinal orchids. Among single locus, ITS performed the best barcode, whereas ITS + matK exhibited the most efficient barcode among multi-loci. A barcode library as a resource for identifying medicinal orchids has been established which contains about 7,000 sequences of 380 species (i.e. 90%) of medicinal orchids in Asia.

Orchid Obscurity: Understanding Domestic Trade in Wild-Harvested Orchids in Viet Nam

Unsustainable and illegal wildlife trade is a well-known conservation issue, but there are still large gaps in our understanding of how trade chains operate for the majority of over-exploited wildlife products. In particular, the large-scale global plant trade is under-reported and under-researched, and this is even more pronounced when the trade takes place within a country’s borders. A clear example is the trade in orchids, all species of which are listed by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). Although countries such as Viet Nam are known hotspots for the large-scale collection of wild orchids for the international horticultural trade, little is known about how plants move from the wild to the end-consumer, what role is played by domestic markets and the sustainability of this trade. We use a mixed-methods approach to determine the structure of trade chains for orchids in key trading areas of Northern Viet Nam, and use a thematic framework to identify five groups of actors trading wild-harvested orchids. Trade occurs both domestically and internationally, underpinned by demand for rare, wild plants. An important first step to address the illegal and unsustainable plant trade is to recognise it as a major and growing conservation issue, and develop diverse approaches that consider the complexity of the supply chains involved. It is imperative that the scale and process of domestic trade is understood, and its impact on long term conservation of these species assessed to make more informed decisions about effective interventions that take into account the full supply chain.

Target sequence capture in orchids: Developing a kit to sequence hundreds of single-copy loci.

PremiseUnderstanding relationships among orchid species and populations is of critical importance for orchid conservation. Target sequence capture has become a standard method for extracting hundreds of orthologous loci for phylogenomics. Up‐front cost and time associated with design of bait sets makes this method prohibitively expensive for many researchers. Therefore, we designed a target capture kit to reliably sequence hundreds of orthologous loci across orchid lineages.MethodsWe designed an Orchidaceae target capture bait set for 963 single‐copy genes identified in published orchid genome sequences. The bait set was tested on 28 orchid species, with representatives of the subfamilies Cypripedioideae, Orchidoideae, and Epidendroideae.ResultsBetween 1,518,041 and 87,946,590 paired‐end 150‐base reads were generated for target‐enriched genomic libraries. We assembled an average of 812 genes per library for Epidendroideae species and a mean of 501 genes for species in the subfamilies Orchidoideae and Cypripedioideae. Furthermore, libraries had on average 107 of the 254 genes that are included in the Angiosperms353 bait set, allowing for direct comparison of studies using either bait set.DiscussionThe Orchidaceae963 kit will enable greater accessibility and utility of next‐generation sequencing for orchid systematics, population genetics, and identification in the illegal orchid trade.

A review for the breeding of orchids: Current achievements and prospects

Orchids are horticultural plants with significant ornamental and economic value. Increasing market circulation and rising trade in orchids is forcing breeders to develop varieties with unique characteristics, including flower color, morphology, and resistance using a range of approaches, including traditional and molecular breeding. Advances in high-throughput technologies have generated extensive data sets with greater sequencing depths and broader coverage, providing the potential for discovering new genes/pathways that give rise to key traits. Several attempts have been made to use emerging molecular and omics methods to accelerate the breeding process in certain of the commercially valuable orchids. This review consolidates current approaches and achievements in orchid breeding and discusses their future applications for improving the resistance, ornamental, and other valuable characteristics of these plants.

Non-detriment findings for international trade in wild orchids from developing countries; A case study for Broughtonia sanguinea in Jamaica

The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) requires that trade in species, including orchids, listed on Appendix II be authorised only if the level of export is not detrimental to their survival in natural environments. This paper describes how existing guidelines for a “non-detriment finding” (NDF) were adapted to provide a protocol for Jamaican orchids using the endemic Broughtonia sanguinea as a case study. The NDF format encompasses taxonomic and ecological information, statutory and conservation status, management practices, and trade data. As well as passing legislation to meet CITES requirements and conduct trade in all listed species, the government of Jamaica has approved a policy towards orchid conservation. The strategies in the policy cover conservation of species and their habitats, sustainable use of orchids, promotion of research and training, and public education. Although much is known of the morphology of Broughtonia sanguinea, an epiphytic orchid typically found in dry limestone forests, and insights into its distribution can be gleaned from sources such as herbarium records and incidental floral studies, a systematic survey has been conducted at only one of its known habitats. This highlights a fundamental issue in making NDFs, which is especially problematic in developing countries: lack of resources to adequately monitor populations of endangered and threatened species and particularly those traded on a relatively small scale. The available data on population density along with ongoing threats to its habitat indicate that the precautionary principle should be followed by progressively reducing the export quota for wild-sourced Broughtonia sanguinea. It is further recommended that artificial propagation of orchids be actively encouraged, and the export of all wild-sourced orchid species be phased out.

Evolution and Expression of Reproductive Transition Regulatory Genes FT/TFL1 With Emphasis in Selected Neotropical Orchids.

Flowering is a rigorously timed and morphologically complex shift in plant development. This change depends on endogenous as well as environmental factors. FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT) integrates several cues from different pathways acting as a flowering promoter. Contrary to the role of FT, its paralog TERMINAL FLOWER 1 (TFL1) delays floral transition. Although FT/TFL1 homologs have been studied in model eudicots and monocots, scarce studies are available in non-model monocots like the Orchidaceae. Orchids are very diverse and their floral complexity is translated into a unique aesthetic display, which appeals the ornamental plant market. Nonetheless, orchid trade faces huge limitations due to their long vegetative phase and intractable indoor flowering seasons. Little is known about the genetic basis that control reproductive transition in orchids and, consequently, manipulating their flowering time remains a challenge. In order to contribute to the understanding of the genetic bases that control flowering in orchids we present here the first broad-scale analysis of FT/TFL1-like genes in monocots with an expanded sampling in Orchidaceae. We also compare expression patterns in three selected species and propose hypotheses on the putative role of these genes in their reproductive transition. Our findings show that FT-like genes are by far more diversified than TFL1-like genes in monocots with six subclades in the former and only one in the latter. Within MonFT1, the comparative protein sequences of MonFT1A and MonFT1B suggest that they could have recruited functional roles in delaying flowering, a role typically assigned to TFL1-like proteins. On the other hand, MonFT2 proteins have retained their canonical motifs and roles in promoting flowering transition. This is also shown by their increased expression levels from the shoot apical meristem (SAM) and leaves to inflorescence meristems (IM) and floral buds (FBs). Finally, TFL1-like genes are retained as single copy and often times are lost. Their loss could be linked to the parallel recruitment of MonFT1A and MonFT1B homologs in delaying flowering and maintaining indeterminacy of the inflorescence meristem. These hypotheses lay the foundation for future functional validation in emerging model orchid species and comparative analyses in orchids with high horticultural potential in the market.

Synthesis of wild orchid trade and demography provides new insight on conservation strategies

AbstractIllegal wildlife trade represents a global conservation priority, but the booming illegal trade in wild plants remains understudied. We use the Mexican orchid trade to illustrate an interdisciplinary approach to provide novel insight on conservation strategies and policies. We synthesize studies of orchid markets, national orchid confiscation records, CITES registers, and global population dynamics studies to document trade patterns and potential ecological impacts. We found 333 wild‐harvested orchid taxa illegally traded in domestic markets. Clear patterns emerged: 90% were epiphytic and <4% traded in high volumes, all of which had pseudobulbs and bloomed during cultural festivals. Most sales were pseudobulbs, not whole plants. Review of demographic studies indicates whole‐plant harvest is unviable but simulations show potential for sustainable harvest of pseudobulbs. The combination of social and ecological findings suggests a novel multipronged approach to improve conservation, including selective monitoring, enforcement focused on whole‐plant harvest, and community‐based wild harvest of pseudobulbs.

The Seven Forms of Challenges in the Wildlife Trade

Initiatives that aim to regulate the international wildlife trade must take into account its multiple and often complex dimensions in order to be effective. To do this, it is essential to understand the interactions between three of the key dimensions of the wildlife trade: (1) taxonomic unit, (2) geographic origin, and (3) product form and transformation. We propose a framework to provide a structured approach to defining the complexities of the wildlife trade, based on Rabinowitz’s seven forms of rarity. We demonstrate the complexities and how they apply to our framework using two contrasting examples: the trade in elephant ivory, and the horticultural orchid trade. Further we use the framework to map different traceability solutions. To be as efficient as possible, efforts to tackle the illegal and unsustainable utilisation of wildlife should take a more structured approach. This framework identifies challenges that current initiatives may face, how they may interact and provides a structure for designing future interventions.

Market trends and ethnobotany of orchids of Mount Cameroon

BackgroundThe Orchidaceae are noted for their floral diversity. In the Mount Cameroon Region (MCR), the genus Bulbophyllum is the most represented genus of the entire flora of this region. Despite the large number of different species in Orchidaceae, very little is known and documented about the orchids in Cameroon at large, in the MCR in particular. Orchids are widely used in flower gardens and trade. The aim of this study was to assess the floristic value of the orchids compared with those of other parts of the world and equally assess species which are used in herbal medicines.MethodsThis research was carried out in the MCR and the main flower market in Cameroon. Semi-structured questionnaires were administered to vendors, buyers, and cultivators at a ratio of 1:1:1, as well as to herbalists and cultural use indices computed. A total of 107 flower gardens in all gardening localities (07) of the region were sampled.ResultsA total of 66 out of 107 gardens had at least one orchid species. Five orchids which are hybrids cultivated by vegetative propagation are traded as ornamental plants in the MCR. A total of 23 species were used for herbal treatment of certain ailments. The ethnobotanical richness of orchids was scored at 6.86. Ansellia africana had the highest cultural importance index (CI), relative importance index (RI), and the relative use index (RNU) while tradactyle tridactylites had the lowest. It was also found that most orchids were used for clairvoyance that is highly associated with myths or folklore and also for external application.ConclusionThe level of awareness on uses of orchids in the MCR is low. Many people consume orchids mixed with different species of plants for herbal treatment. Orchid trade is used as a part of subsistence by orchid cultivators and vendors.

Species Richness May Determine the Income from Illicit Wild Orchid Trading in Traditional Markets in Mexico

The orchid trade is an informal activity in Mexico traditionally performed by indigenous people; however, this activity, based on the extraction of wild specimens without a management plan, is sanctioned by environmental laws. Few studies have documented the extraction volumes for illicitly traded orchids, the status of the populations affected by this activity, the socioeconomic profiles of the vendors, or the factors determining income, which are essential for designing strategies to conserve this resource. We documented species richness, abundance, and prices for orchids traded during December in traditional markets in Chiapas, Mexico. The relationships among price, species showiness, and some variables determining income were evaluated. We recorded 28 traded species, all of which were extracted from neighboring, protected, and high-biodiversity forests. The most income was generated from three species, which were also the most abundant in the markets. This trade affects the conservation of two threatened Mexican orchids, but at a state level, it also impacts populations of other species that are not considered at risk. A significant relationship was found between the price of an orchid and its flower size and between the vendor’s income and the quantity of orchids traded by him. The income obtained by a vendor was significantly explained by orchid inflorescence abundance, vendor’s age, and a biodiversity index estimated here.

A review of the trade in orchids and its implications for conservation

Orchids are one of the largest plant families and are commercially traded for a variety of purposes, including as ornamental plants, medicinal products and food. These markets involve thousands of species, which may be traded legally or illegally, sustainably or unsustainably, and take place at local, national or international scales. In this review, we provide the first overview of commercial orchid trade globally and highlight the main types that involve wild-collected plants. Much of this trade is the result of illegal harvest meaning that it is little documented and is absent from official statistics, at the same time as being of growing conservation concern. We discuss the associated legal–regulatory context, identify key conservation challenges and highlight four key priorities for addressing these challenges. These are to (1) research trade dynamics and the impacts of harvest; (2) strengthen the legal trade of orchids; (3) adopt measures to reduce illegal trade; and (4) raise the profile of orchid trade among policy makers, conservationists and the public.

DNA metabarcoding of orchid-derived products reveals widespread illegal orchid trade.

In eastern Mediterranean countries orchids continue to be collected from the wild for the production of salep, a beverage made of dried orchid tubers. In this study we used nrITS1 and nrITS2 DNA metabarcoding to identify orchid and other plant species present in 55 commercial salep products purchased in Iran, Turkey, Greece and Germany. Thirty samples yielded a total of 161 plant taxa, and 13 products (43%) contained orchid species and these belonged to 10 terrestrial species with tuberous roots. Another 70% contained the substitute ingredient Cyamopsis tetraganoloba (Guar). DNA metabarcoding using the barcoding markers nrITS1 and nrITS2 shows the potential of these markers and approach for identification of species used in salep products. The analysis of interspecific genetic distances between sequences of these markers for the most common salep orchid genera shows that species level identifications can be made with a high level of confidence. Understanding the species diversity and provenance of salep orchid tubers will enable the chain of commercialization of endangered species to be traced back to the harvesters and their natural habitats, and thus allow for targeted efforts to protect or sustainably use wild populations of these orchids.

Characteristics of the orchid trade at public markets and implications for conservation in Xishuangbanna, Yunnan, China

Characteristics of the orchid trade at public markets and implications for conservation in Xishuangbanna, Yunnan, China