Wildlife Trade Research Articles

Building Trust and Honouring Agreements in the Supply of Protected Wildlife Products

Abstract This paper draws on interview data and published court judgment reports to reveal first-hand accounts of illegal transactions involving protected wildlife and how criminals collaborate with one another. This research finds that wildlife supply is controlled by a small number of key suppliers. Further, trust is embedded in the criminals’ relationship based on kinship and friendship ties, while individuals’ ethnicity and reputation also facilitate collaboration. These arrangements shape the criminal networks that exploit protected wildlife. This paper suggests further research into online trading of protected wildlife products, the presence of women in the illegal wildlife trade and the impact of COVID-19 on the criminal networks supplying wildlife.

Opening the floodgates for invasion-modelling the distribution dynamics of invasive alien fishes in India.

Invasive alien species have become the second major threat to biodiversity affecting all three major ecosystems (terrestrial, marine, and freshwater). Increasing drivers such as habitat destruction, expanding horticulture and aquaculture industries, and global pet and food trade have created pathways for exotic species to be introduced leading to severe impacts on recipient ecosystems. Although relatively less studied than terrestrial ecosystems, freshwater ecosystems are highly susceptible to biological invasions. In India, there has been a noticeable increase in the introduction of alien fish species in freshwater environments. In the current study, we aimed to understand how climate change can affect the dynamics of the biological invasion of invasive alien fishes in India. We also evaluated the river-linking project's impact on the homogenization of biota in Indian freshwater bodies. We used species occurrence records with selected environmental variables to assess vulnerable locations for current and future biological invasion using species distribution models. Our study has identified and mapped the vulnerable regions to invasion in India. Our research indicates that the interlinking of rivers connects susceptible regions housing endangered fish species with invasive hotspots. Invasive alien fishes from the source basin may invade vulnerable basins and compete with the native species. Based on the results, we discuss some of the key areas for the management of these invasive alien species in the freshwater ecosystems.

Poaching and illegal trade of Danube sturgeons

A market study on sturgeon products in the Lower Danube countries (Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia and Ukraine) resulted in a total of 149 samples of caviar and meat, which we subjected to genetic-isotope analyses. The samples comprised 31 samples (21%) of illegal wild-caught origin, 17 samples (11.4%) sold in violation of CITES and EU regulations, and 47 cases (32%) of consumer deception. Although poaching and illegal wildlife trade are often considered a problem in developing countries, these findings bear evidence that a high ratio of poached sturgeon products originates from EU and accession candidate states. Therefore, caviar and sturgeon trade urgently needs improvement to ensure that sturgeon populations will have a future.

Online wildlife trade in species of conservation concern

AbstractOnline wildlife trade is widespread and affects thousands of species. Yet, attempts to quantify online wildlife trade have mainly focused on a few platforms and taxonomic groups. Here, we study the prevalence of wildlife trade using automated data collection and filtering methods. We analyze trade across five digital platforms and 156 animal and plant species of conservation concern from a global biodiversity hotspot, the Philippines. We identified approximately 5000 highly relevant instances of trade in 1.47 million posts, focusing on 108 species, 79 of which are classified as threatened. Trade mainly occurred on webpages indexed in Google and on Twitter. We found that manual validation is essential, as animals obtained a higher proportion of hits prior to validation. Following manual validation, we observed a shift toward plant‐related trade hits. Scaling up these approaches to a global level is key to understanding the extent of digital wildlife trade across the globe.

Assessing avian diversity and conservation status in Dighal Wetlands, Haryana, India

Birds are considered sensitive indicators of ecosystem health and functionality in freshwater wetlands. Assessment of birdassemblages in wetland habitats is, therefore, emphasised from a sustainable management perspective. Bird surveys were conducted from October 2020 to September 2022. These surveys aimed to assess the community composition and status of avifauna in Dighal wetlands, an important bird area in the Jhajjar District of Haryana, India. Data collection employed point counts and opportunistic encounter methods. A total of 154 bird species belonging to 108 genera, 47 families, and 18 orders were recorded. Of these, 75 species were residents, 60 were winter migrants, and 10 were summer migrants. The greatest species richness was observed for the order Passeriformes (54), followed by Charadriiformes (22), Anseriformes (17), and the rest of the 15 orders. Anatidae was the most dominant family with 17 species, constituting 11% of the bird community in the study area. Data on local abundance revealed that 10 species were common, 23 were fairly common, 83 were uncommon, and 38 were rare in the study area. Among the recorded avifauna, one species is classified as Endangered, three as Vulnerable, and eight as Near Threatened in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species; 17 species are listed in the Appendices of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES); and 11 are included in Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. These wetlands also support 40 species of birds, which have a declining population trend globally. The occurrence of migrants and species of global conservation priority underscores the importance of these wetlands as a conservation site and wintering ground for avifauna due to the extensive food resources and rich biodiversity they support. The present study provides baseline information for future research on monitoring bird assemblages and proper management of the Dighal wetlands of Haryana.

Isotopic applications assit in forensic tracking of illegally traded wildlife parts

Isotopic applications assit in forensic tracking of illegally traded wildlife parts Keith A. Hobson, a Research Scientist and Professor at Environment and Climate Change Canada, discusses the use of stable isotopes to trace the origins of animal parts in order to mitigate the illegal wildlife trade. As of 2022, the illegal global trade in tissues of (CITES and non-CITES listed) wildlife has been estimated to be on the order of $220 billion,(1) placing this practice among the top four of all global criminal enterprises. As ecosystems and the wild animals and plants they harbor come under increasing pressure from human developments, such trade threatens many species with decimation and ultimate extinction. Governments continue to struggle with the extent of this phenomenon and generally have few tools available to counter this growing trend. However, once seized, wildlife parts can be examined forensically to help ascertain provenance, and such tools can contribute in a small way to counter such criminal activity.

Prevalence and diversity of avian malaria parasites in illegally traded white‐winged parakeets in Peruvian Amazonas

AbstractIllegal or poorly regulated wildlife trade may enhance parasite spread worldwide, leading to pathogen outbreaks and the emergence of diseases affecting native wildlife, domestic animals and humans. The order Psittaciformes has the largest proportion of endangered species among all birds worldwide and is one of the most trafficked taxa in the pet trade. However, despite the large number of parrot species commercialized worldwide, the influence of illegally traded wild birds on the introduction of exotic pathogens is still poorly investigated. Here we molecularly examined the prevalence and genetic diversity of haemosporidian parasites in illegally traded white‐winged parakeets (Brotogeris versicolurus), one of the most trafficked parrots in South America. We found that 18.5% of parakeets harboured Plasmodium relictum GRW04, a highly invasive malaria parasite provoking population decline and even extinctions in native avifauna when established outside its natural range. We also showed that malaria infected birds have lower body condition than uninfected parakeets, revealing the negative effects of malaria on their avian hosts. These outcomes highlight the risk of malaria spill over and disease outbreak in illegally traded wildlife. Our results also reveal epidemiological key concepts in disease transmission, such as the role of poorly studied parrot species as natural reservoir hosts of haemosporidians. These findings stress the importance of enforcing health control regulations and trade policies to fight wildlife trafficking effectively.

WILD ANIMALS AS PETS IN RIO BRANCO, ACRE, BRAZIL

The trade in wildlife poses a major threat to biodiversity, with high demand for pets in many countries. Addressing this threat requires an understanding of its socioeconomic dimensions. We examined the demographics of wild animal breeders in Rio Branco, Brazil, focusing on which taxa were kept as pets, how many of each, and how they were obtained, as well as age, self-reported socioeconomic status, and education. Birds were the most kept wild animals, and the major ways of obtaining them were as gifts, purchases, and captures. We found that economic and cultural factors influence the breeding of wild animals in Rio Branco, with cultural habits being a stronger factor than trade. It is important to assess the demographic profile of wild animal breeders to raise awareness about the negative consequences of this practice. We emphasize the importance of stricter and continuous monitoring to maintain biodiversity and prevent the extinction of threatened species.

Knowledge, Beliefs, and Experience Regarding Slow Lorises in Southern Thailand: Coexistence in a Developed Landscape.

Natural landscapes are being converted for agriculture and other human uses across Asia and this development presents potential threats for specialist species of primates, like the Endangered slow lorises of Thailand (Nycticebus bengalensis and N. coucang). It is crucial to understand the interface between humans and slow lorises in order to conserve these primates. Local ecological knowledge provides valuable information about these cryptic nocturnal species. We conducted 36 semi-structured interviews in Khao Lak, in southern Thailand, asking (1) where slow lorises were seen, (2) what they were doing, (3) how often people see slow lorises, and (4) what people knew about them. We converted the interviews to free lists and determined the importance of key words. Our results show that the informants saw lorises frequently in six general locations: forests/trees (58%), electric wires (47%), towns/villages (36%), plantations (33%), homesteads (28%), and roads (17%). The most prominent places were forests/trees, wires, and plantations. Eleven key concepts defined local beliefs, with the most prominent being that lorises are awake at night (69%), eat fruit (42%), are not aggressive (25%), are bad omens (25%), and there used to be more of them (25%). Due to a minimal presence of persecution or exploitation of slow lorises by humans in the study area and general tolerance in the face of competition for the same resources and spaces, we suggest that, despite extensive persecution for the illegal photo prop trade in nearby Phuket, the people of Khao Lak seem to live in a state of passive coexistence with slow lorises. However, we did find some evidence that the pet and photo prop trade are still present in the area. It is crucial that coexistence be struck within the context of deforestation and urbanization so that conservation initiatives can take place within the community to further improve the lives of humans and the status of lorises.

Policy feedback and the enforcement of international wildlife treaties in Germany

AbstractLaws are only as good as their enforcement. International treaties are no exception. We investigate how Germany implements international wildlife protection treaties, namely the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora and the Bern Convention. We find that Germany's federal system allows for uneven enforcement of national legislation across the 16 federal states. We utilize Policy Feedback Theory as a theoretical lens to examine how federalism (re‐)produces different enforcement regimes. We rely on qualitative analysis of interviews of German street‐level bureaucrats, government officials, and NGO representatives. We find that macrolevel context impacts how institutions enforce wildlife protection policies. Particularly, Germany's federal structure permits either centralized, decentralized, or cooperative arrangements that result in differences in resources, affecting the ways bureaucrats view their roles and responsibilities. These resource and interpretive effects further feedback into the contextual structure of the federal enforcement system.

The global risk of infectious disease emergence from giant land snail invasion and pet trade

BackgroundPathogen outbreaks mostly originate from animals, but some species are more likely to trigger epidemics. The giant land snail (Lissachatina fulica) is a widespread invader, a popular exotic pet, and a notorious vector of the rat lungworm, causing eosinophilic meningitis in humans. However, a comprehensive assessment of the risks of disease outbreak associated with this species is lacking.MethodsWe assessed and mapped the risk of disease transmission associated with the invasion and pet trade of L. fulica. First, we conducted a review of the scientific literature to list all known L. fulica parasites and pathogens and query host–pathogen databases to identify their potential mammalian hosts. Then, to assess the potential for L. fulica to spread globally, we modelled its suitable climatic conditions and tested whether, within climatically suitable areas, the species tended to occur near humans or not. Finally, we used social media data to map L. fulica possession as an exotic pet and to identify human behaviours associated with increased risk of disease transmission.ResultsLissachatina fulica can carry at least 36 pathogen species, including two-thirds that can infect humans. The global invasion of L. fulica is climatically limited to tropical areas, but the species is strongly associated with densely populated areas where snails are more likely to enter in contact with humans. In temperate countries, however, climatic conditions should prevent L. fulica's spread. However, we show that in Europe, giant snails are popular exotic pets and are often handled with direct skin contact, likely increasing the risk of pathogen transmission to their owners.ConclusionsIt is urgent to raise public awareness of the health risks associated with L. fulica in both tropical countries and Europe and to regulate its trade and ownership internationally. Our results highlight the importance of accounting for multiple types of human-wildlife interactions when assessing risks of infectious disease emergence. Furthermore, by targeting the species most likely to spread pathogens, we show that it is possible to rapidly identify emerging disease risks on a global scale, thus guiding timely and appropriate responses.Graphical

Estimating the impact of the illegal trade of primates in Mexico: a potential threat to wildlife.

The primates of Mexico, Ateles geoffroyi, Alouatta palliata, and Alouatta pigra, are seriously threatened by habitat loss, fragmentation, and illegal hunting and trade. Very little is known about the extent of illegal trade and its impacts on declining primate populations. Our study proposes a potential method based on estimating the number of individuals that die in the trade before being detected and those that probably cannot be detected. This facilitates estimating the number of animals extracted and allows an assessment of how trafficking impacts their populations. We derive estimates from seizure data of primates in Mexico between 2010 and 2019. To do this, we created wildlife detection rates and mortality rates from the existing literature (scientific articles, journalistic articles, and notes) to estimate the number of primates that die during capture, transport, and sale and the number of trafficked primates that were not detected by Mexican authorities. We estimate that 946 primates were removed from the wild for the pet trade each year (spider monkey Ateles geoffroyi= 854; black howler monkeys Alouatta pigra= 38, mantled howler monkey Alouatta palliata= 54). The annual reduction in population size caused by trafficking was greatest for Ateles geoffroyi (2.2%), followed by Alouatta pigra (1.3%), and Alouatta palliata (0.4%). Our estimates show the percentage of impacts that trafficking has on Mexican primate populations. Nevertheless, trade has the potential to impact declining populations and still must be addressed.

One-Size-Fits-All? How north-south inequality challenges CITES’ ability to protect the scalloped hammerhead

The critically endangered scalloped hammerhead has been listed on Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) since 2014, yet the species continues to decline. This study draws on CITES trade data, expert interviews, and content analysis to answer two research questions: 1) What is the geography and quantity of the scalloped hammerhead trade since its CITES Appendix II listing? And 2) What are the key challenges associated with protecting a species of high commercial and subsistence value, such as the scalloped hammerhead? This research identifies three major challenges that CITES faces in protecting such species. First, it is difficult to list commercially valuable species, as there are often commercial interests at stake, and conflicting beliefs among Parties. Second, Parties are inadequately implementing CITES legislation, resulting in low compliance with regulations. And third, CITES is unable to effectively manage species from the Global South that offer subsistence and economic value to local communities, as shark fishing is legal in some countries, and there is little to no incentive to comply with CITES regulations when livelihoods are on the line. This research affirms a major theme in political ecology literature on CITES and species loss: CITES is limited in its ability to manage species traded from the Global South for various reasons, many of which stem from conditions of socio-economic inequality. In order to protect species like the scalloped hammerhead, CITES needs to do more to address inequality.

Is the demand for fish swim bladders driving the extinction of globally endangered marine wildlife?

Abstract International trade in croaker swim bladders or maws and incidental catches in fisheries targeting croakers for their maws pose a global problem that needs addressing to protect target croakers and globally threatened small cetaceans, sharks, rays and marine turtles. The lesson of the likely imminent extinction of the vaquita porpoise (Phocoena sinus) in the Gulf of California, Mexico, owing to entanglement in gillnets targeting the totoaba croaker for its maw, is that the underlying threats to marine species must be addressed well before precipitous declines make their extinction inevitable. Opportunistic interviews with fishers and fish traders in Bangladesh indicate that the increasing demand for fish maws, selling for as much as 5,000 USD per kg, may be intensifying small‐scale coastal fisheries and bycatches of globally threatened marine wildlife, especially due to the potential for a windfall profit. In 137 croaker catches made in gillnets, sharks were bycaught in 22%, marine turtles in 8% and rays in 3% of catches. Of particular concern were six bycatches of 125 Critically Endangered scalloped hammerhead sharks (Sphyrna lewini), 11 bycatches of 20 Vulnerable (VU) olive ridley turtles (Lepidochelys olivacea) and two bycatches of 13 VU longtail butterfly rays (Gymnura poecilura). A recent IUCN Motion for ‘Controlling and monitoring trade in croaker swim bladders to protect target croakers and reduce incidental catches of threatened marine megafauna’ recommends conducting an analysis on the impacts of the demand for and trade in fish maws on croaker species and threatened marine megafauna, regulating trade in fish maws through national laws and developing a potential proposal to list croaker species in the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). To prevent species extinctions, additional measures focusing on fishery management will be needed.

Perdagangan Satwa Liar Ditinjau Dari Convention On International Trade In Endangered Species Of Wild Fauna And Flaura

Introduction: Smuggling, trading, and theft of protected wild animals have increased quite high, such as orangutans, tigers, primates, and various other types of wildlife. It was recorded that since 2014 there were 14 cases until in 2016 the cases increased to 25 cases of illegal wildlife trade. This will have an impact on the lack of heritage biodiversity for mankind.Purposes of the Research: To find out about protection against wildlife trade according to the Convention On International Trade In Endangered Species Of Wild Fauna And FlauraMethods of the Research: The research used is normative juridical research. The research approach uses a legal approach, a conceptual approach and a case approach. Sources of research data are primary, secondary, tertiary data which is carried out by searching for library materials, namely studies related to international and national laws and regulations. The collection of legal materials is then analyzed qualitatively.Results of the Research: Wildlife protection according to the CITES convention is discussed in the classification of endangered species, non-threatened species, and registered species based on Appendix I, Appendix II and Appendix III. Appendix I lists and protects all wild flora and fauna species that are threatened with extinction so that they are prohibited from all forms of international trade. Meanwhile, Appendix II contains a list of Appendix II that are not threatened with extinction, but may be threatened with extinction if the trade in these species is not controlled. Then on the Appendix. III contains a list of flora and fauna species that have been protected by a certain country within the boundaries of their habitat area. The state must be responsible for the preservation of protected animals. Indonesian national laws regarding the protection of wild animals as well as endangered species should be maximized by conducting socialization to the public. The perpetrators of trade in protected wildlife must be given appropriate punishment and the need for a firm attitude from the government towards those who trade in animals in order to provide a deterrent effect for the perpetrators

A systematic mapping review of links between handling wild meat and zoonotic diseases

1.Hunting, trade, and consumption of wildlife present a serious threat to global public health as it places humans in close contact with zoonotic pathogens.2.We systematically mapped the literature on wild meat handling and zoonotic disease transmission (1996–2022) using the online database Web of Science and Google search engine and identified 6229 articles out of which 253 were finally selected for use in our mapping review; 51 of these provided specific information regarding transmission risks.3.The reviewed studies reported 43 zoonotic pathogens (17 bacteria, 15 viruses, and 11 parasites) that could pose a potential risk to human health.4.Sixteen hygienic and sanitary behaviours were described in the reviewed studies. Disease surveillance was the most frequent. Most of the surveillance studies were carried out in Europe and were less common in the tropics.5.To inform policy and practical actions effectively, it is imperative to broaden our understanding of how various mitigation behaviours can be employed to minimize the risk of transmission.

Bear trade in Poland: an analysis of legal and illegal international trade from 2000 to 2021

Commercial trade is one of the leading threats to bears as they are targeted for trophies, food and medicines. While the threat from illegal trade and trafficking has been extensively studied in Asia, understanding of bear trade dynamics outside this region is limited. Poland is an end use destination for wildlife products such as trophies and wildlife-based traditional medicines. To gain an understanding of the bear trade in Poland, we conducted an analysis of (1) seizure data, (2) Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) trade data and (3) online surveys of Polish websites. We found that the trade of bears in Poland predominantly involves a demand for traditional bear-based medicines and, to a lesser extent, trophies. While trade in bear-based medicines and trophies is permissible with appropriate permits, illegal trade in such commodities is occurring in violation of CITES and European Union Wildlife Trade Regulations and in case of brown bear specimens—also national laws. This may possibly be due to a lack of public awareness regarding laws governing the import and export of bear parts and derivatives in which case education and awareness raising programmes might prove beneficial in eradicating trafficking of bear-based medicines and trophies. The use of bear bile for traditional medicine in Eastern Europe has not been previously documented and merits further research as to its scale, the source of bears used for these purposes and the potential impacts to bear populations.

Effect of CITES Appendix I listing on illegal pangolin trade as gauged from seizure reports in Indonesia

Pangolins, one of the most heavily trafficked animals, have become the poster child for the illegal wildlife trade. Pangolins are protected throughout their range and their international trade has been regulated through the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). Assessing the effectiveness of trade regulations, such as the listing of all pangolins on CITES Appendix I in 2016 precluding all international trade, can be done by analysis of seizure reports. I report 81 large seizures within Indonesia over the last 12 years, the equivalent of 18,024 pangolins representing a value of USD9.42 million. In Indonesia, the number of seizures remained stable at around seven a year. There was a significant decrease in the number of seized pangolin equivalents, from 3000 to 4000 in 2011 and 2012 to 400 to 600 in 2021 and 2022. A break point analysis showed that any changes in this trend did not coincide with changes in international trade regulations. Seizures were made in 17/22 provinces where pangolins occur. At the provincial level seizures or the number of confiscated pangolins was not linked to minimum wage, area, human population, or international connectiveness. Despite the international nature of the pangolin trade, where reported, suspects that were arrested were Indonesian nationals. Over time the proportion of seizures comprising solely of scales has increased from ~ 5 to 100%. These observations of seizures of large amounts of pangolin scales, in the absence of bodies, carcasses, or meat, suggest there is a hidden trade in these parts, in Indonesia and/or elsewhere. There is no clear support that the CITES Appendix I listing had a direct effect on the pangolin trade within Indonesia.

United States amphibian imports pose a disease risk to salamanders despite Lacey Act regulations

Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (Bsal), one of two fungal pathogens that cause the deadly amphibian disease chytridiomycosis, is a major impending threat to salamander biodiversity in North America, where it is not yet known to occur. In the United States, a 2016 wildlife trade policy restricted trade in 20 salamander genera in attempts to prevent Bsal introduction. However, little comprehensive data is available to evaluate the impact of this policy action. Here we collate a dataset of United States amphibian imports from 1999 to 2021 using Law Enforcement Management Information System (LEMIS) data and show that reported legal trade in the targeted taxa was effectively reduced by the ban. Unfortunately, amphibian trade into the United States continues to risk Bsal introduction given that other species and genera now known to carry Bsal are still traded in large quantities (millions of live individuals annually). Additional policy responses focused on Bsal carrier taxa, especially frogs in the genus Rana, could help mitigate the impact of Bsal on North American salamanders.

The United States dried seahorse trade: A comparison of traditional Chinese medicine and ecommerce-curio markets using molecular identification.

Tens of millions of dried seahorses (genus Hippocampus) are traded annually, and the pressure from this trade along with their life history traits (involved parental care and small migration distances and home ranges) has led to near global population declines. This and other forms of overexploitation have led to all seahorse species being listed in Appendix II under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). The signatory nations of CITES recommended a 10-cm size limit of seahorses to ensure harvested individuals have reached reproductive maturity, and have thus had the chance to produce offspring, to maintain a more sustainable global seahorse fishery. We assessed adherence to CITES recommendations using DNA barcoding and size measurements to compare two prominent U.S. dried seahorse markets: (1) traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), and (2) non-medicinal ecommerce and coastal curio (ECC). We also estimated U.S. import abundance from CITES records. Of the nine species identified among all samples (n = 532), eight were found in the TCM trade (n = 168); composed mostly (75%) of the Indo-Pacific species Hippocampus trimaculatus, and Hippocampus spinosissimus, and the Latin American Hippocampus ingens. In contrast, ECC samples (n = 344) included 5 species, primarily juvenile Indo-Pacific Hippocampus kuda (51.5%) and the western Atlantic Hippocampus zosterae (40.7). The majority of TCM samples (85.7%) met the CITES size recommendation, in contrast to 4.8% of ECC samples. These results suggest non-size discriminatory bycatch is the most likely source of imported ECC specimens. In addition, CITES records indicate that approximately 602,275 dried specimens were imported into the U.S. from 2004-2020, but the exact species composition remains unknown as many U.S. imports records list one species or Hippocampus spp. from confiscated shipments due to difficulties in morphological identification and large numbers of individuals per shipment. Molecular identification was used to identify the species composition of confiscated shipment imports containing undesignated species, and similar to TCM, found H. trimaculatus and H. spinosissimus the most abundant. By combining DNA barcoding, size comparisons, and CITES database records, these results provide an important glimpse into the two primary dried U.S. seahorse end-markets, and may further inform the conservation status of several Hippocampus species.