Trachomatis Genital Infection Research Articles

An investigation of trachoma vaccine regimens by the chlamydia vaccine CTH522 administered with cationic liposomes in healthy adults (CHLM-02): a phase 1, double-blind trial

There is no vaccine against the major global pathogen Chlamydia trachomatis; its different serovars cause trachoma in the eye or chlamydia in the genital tract. We did a clinical trial administering CTH522, a recombinant version of the C trachomatis major outer membrane molecule, in different dose concentrations with and without adjuvant, to establish its safety and immunogenicity when administered intramuscularly, intradermally, and topically into the eye, in prime-boost regimens. CHLM-02 was a phase 1, double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled trial at the National Institute for Health Research Imperial Clinical Research Facility, London, UK. Participants were healthy men and non-pregnant women aged 18-45 years, without pre-existing C trachomatis genital infection. Participants were assigned into six groups by the electronic database in a pre-prepared randomisation list (A-F). Participants were randomly assigned (1:1:1:1:1) to each of the groups A-E (12 participants each) and 6 were randomly assigned to group F. Investigators were masked to treatment allocation. Groups A-E received investigational medicinal product and group F received placebo only. Two liposomal adjuvants were compared, CAF01 and CAF09b. The groups were intramuscular 85 μg CTH522-CAF01, or placebo on day 0 and two boosters or placebo at day 28 and 112, and a mucosal recall with either placebo or CTH522 topical ocularly at day 140 (A); intramuscular 85 μg CTH522-CAF01, two boosters at day 28 and 112 with additional topical ocular administration of CTH522, and a mucosal recall with either placebo or CTH522 topical ocularly at day 140 (B); intramuscular 85 μg CTH522-CAF01, two boosters at day 28 and 112 with additional intradermal administration of CTH522, and a mucosal recall with either placebo or CTH522 topical ocularly at day 140 (C); intramuscular 15 μg CTH522-CAF01, two boosters at day 28 and 112, and a mucosal recall with either placebo or CTH522 topical ocularly at day 140 (D); intramuscular 85 μg CTH522-CAF09b, two boosters at day 28 and 112, and a mucosal recall with either placebo or CTH522 topical ocularly at day 140 (E); intramuscular placebo (F). The primary outcome was safety; the secondary outcome (humoral immunogenicity) was the percentage of trial participants achieving anti-CTH522 IgG seroconversion, defined as four-fold and ten-fold increase over baseline concentrations. Analyses were done as intention to treat and as per protocol. The trial is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT03926728, and is complete. Between Feb 17, 2020 and Feb 22, 2022, of 154 participants screened, 65 were randomly assigned, and 60 completed the trial (34 [52%] of 65 women, 46 [71%] of 65 White, mean age 26·8 years). No serious adverse events occurred but one participant in group A2 discontinued dosing after having self-limiting adverse events after both placebo and investigational medicinal product doses. Study procedures were otherwise well tolerated; the majority of adverse events were mild to moderate, with only seven (1%) of 865 reported as grade 3 (severe). There was 100% four-fold seroconversion rate by day 42 in the active groups (A-E) and no seroconversion in the placebo group. Serum IgG anti-CTH522 titres were higher after 85 μg CTH522-CAF01 than 15 μg, although not significantly (intention-to-treat median IgG titre ratio groups A-C:D=5·6; p=0·062), with no difference after three injections of 85 μg CTH522-CAF01 compared with CTH522-CAF09b (group E). Intradermal CTH522 (group C) induced high titres of serum IgG anti-CTH522 neutralising antibodies against serovars B (trachoma) and D (urogenital). Topical ocular CTH522 (group B) at day 28 and 112 induced higher total ocular IgA compared with baseline (p<0·001). Participants in all active vaccine groups, particularly groups B and E, developed cell mediated immune responses against CTH522. CTH522, adjuvanted with CAF01 or CAF09b, is safe and immunogenic, with 85 μg CTH522-CAF01 inducing robust serum IgG binding titres. Intradermal vaccination conferred systemic IgG neutralisation breadth, and topical ocular administration increased ocular IgA formation. These findings indicate CTH522 vaccine regimens against ocular trachoma and urogenital chlamydia for testing in phase 2, clinical trials. The EU Horizon Program TRACVAC.

IFNγ insufficiency during mouse intra-vaginal Chlamydia trachomatis infection exacerbates alternative activation in macrophages with compromised CD40 functions

Chlamydia trachomatis (C.tr), an obligate intracellular pathogen, causes asymptomatic genital infections in women and is a leading cause of preventable blindness. We have developed in vivo mouse models of acute and chronic C. trachomatis genital infection to explore the significance of macrophage-directed response in mediating immune activation/suppression. Our findings reveal that during chronic and repeated C. trachomatis infections, Th1 response is abated while Treg response is enhanced. Additionally, an increase in exhaustion (PD1, CTLA4) and anergic (Klrg3, Tim3) T cell markers is observed during chronic infection. We have also observed that M2 macrophages with low CD40 expression promote Th2 and Treg differentiation leading to sustained C. trachomatis genital infection. Macrophages infected with C. trachomatis or treated with supernatant of infected epithelial cells drive them to an M2 phenotype. C. trachomatis infection prevents the increase in CD40 expression as observed in western blots and flow cytometric analysis. Insufficient IFNγ, as observed during chronic infection, leads to incomplete clearance of bacteria and poor immune activation. C. trachomatis decapacitates IFNγ responsiveness in macrophages via hampering IFNγRI and IFNγRII expression which can be correlated with poor expression of MHC-II, CD40, iNOS and NO release even following IFNγ supplementation. M2 macrophages during C. trachomatis infection express low CD40 rendering immunosuppressive, Th2 and Treg differentiation which could not be reverted even by IFNγ supplementation. The alternative macrophages also harbour high bacterial load and are poor responders to IFNγ, thus promoting immunosuppression. In summary, C. trachomatis modulates the innate immune cells, attenuating the anti-chlamydial functions of T cells in a manner that involves decreased CD40 expression on macrophages.

Results of a Community-Based Screening Program for Chlamydia trachomatis Genital Infection in Young People Aged 18-25 Years.

Introduction and aim Chlamydia trachomatis (CT) cases have increased in the last decade. The aim of the study was to assess the prevalence of CT genital infection in asymptomatic, sexually active young peopleand determine whether a community screening program would be effective in reducing the number of cases. Methods A descriptive cross-sectional studyof consecutive inclusion of asymptomatic people aged 18-25 years between September 2021 and May 2022. Community interventions in high schools, universities, and cultural events were planned to realize the screening.Sociodemographic variables of gender, age, country of origin, and educational level, as well as sexual habits, were recorded for each patient. CT was detected via urine samples. An estimate of the prevalence of CT genital infection and its 95% confidence interval (CI) was made based on the exact binomial distribution, assuming that the sample is representative of the study population. Results A total of 628 subjects participated in the study, of whom 33 had a CT infection, giving a prevalence of 5.2% (95% CI: 3.6%, 7.3%). 93.9% of subjects with CT infection were female (p≤0.019) and 85% of the participants were Spanish nationals. Among vocational training students, the prevalence was 8.1%. Having had four or more sexual partners in the last month and in the previous year was significantly associated with CT infection (p<0.001). Conclusion Screening for CT genital infection in young sexually active women should be implemented in our country, as recommended by the various guidelines.

Chlamydia trachomatisinfection renders M2 generation to mediated immunosuppression.

Abstract Chlamydia trachomatis (C.tr) cause asymptomatic genital infections in women and is also a leading cause of preventable blindness. Limited mouse model of chronic C.tr infection are available to study the host immune response. We have developed BALB/c mice models of acute and chronic infections for C. trachomatisto explore the significance of macrophage-directed response in mediating immune activation/suppression. We observed that chronic and repeated infections accompanied abbrogated IFN-g and promoted enhanced TGF-β and IL-10 secretion. The signs of T cell exhaustion and anergy were also indicated during chronic and secondary infection. This skewed T cell response was established to be the regulated by alternatively-activated macrophages with low CD40 expression leading to sustained C. trachomatis genital infection. Macrophages under the influence of C. trachomatis infection or its secretome demonstrate an M2-macrophage subset phenotype which responded poorly to IFN-g owing to decreased IFNg-RI and IFNg-RII expression which correlated with decreased expression/release of MHC-II, CD40, iNOS and NO even following IFN-g treatment. Alternatively-activated M2 macrophages with low CD40 expression harbored high bacterial load and rendered the generation of immunosuppressive Th2 and Treg cells. Thus, C. trachomatis modulate the innate immune cells attenuating the anti-chlamydial functions of T cells in a manner that involves alleviated CD40 expression on macrophages.

Active Hexose Correlated Compound as a Countermeasure against Cold-induced Stress during Chlamydia muridarum Genital Infection in Mice.

Chronic stress is known to suppress the immune system, but the influence of stress on the pathogenesis of Chlamydia trachomatis genital infection and host immune response remains unexplored A stress mouse model has been developed in our lab and we have demonstrated that cold-induced stress (CIS) suppresses the immune system and subsequently leads to increased intensity of Chlamydia muridaum in mice. We have started feeding mice with Active hexose correlated compound (AHCC) that may restore the function of the immune system and result in reduced C. muridarum shedding from the genital tract. During the feeding of stressed mice with AHCC, dendritic cells (DCs) and macrophages bring the AHCC to T cells in the lymph node; however, the specific functions of DCs subsets in our stress model are not defined. We determined the production of cytokines by macrophages, CDs, and CD4+T in the AHCC-fed stress mice during C. muridarum genital infection. CD4+ T cells isolated from the spleen or lymph node of stressed-AHCC-fed, PBS-stressed, or non-stressed mice proliferated, and cytokine secretion was measured by ELISA. AHCC-feeding led to lower production of IL-5, IL-13, IL-10 and higher IL-12 (P&lt;0.01) and IFN-

In-Silico Functional Metabolic Pathways Associated to Chlamydia trachomatis Genital Infection.

The advent of high-throughput technologies, such as 16s rDNA sequencing, has significantly contributed to expanding our knowledge of the microbiota composition of the genital tract during infections such as Chlamydia trachomatis. The growing body of metagenomic data can be further exploited to provide a functional characterization of microbial communities via several powerful computational approaches. Therefore, in this study, we investigated the predicted metabolic pathways of the cervicovaginal microbiota associated with C. trachomatis genital infection in relation to the different Community State Types (CSTs), via PICRUSt2 analysis. Our results showed a more rich and diverse mix of predicted metabolic pathways in women with a CST-IV microbiota as compared to all the other CSTs, independently from infection status. C. trachomatis genital infection further modified the metabolic profiles in women with a CST-IV microbiota and was characterized by increased prevalence of the pathways for the biosynthesis of precursor metabolites and energy, biogenic amino-acids, nucleotides, and tetrahydrofolate. Overall, predicted metabolic pathways might represent the starting point for more precisely designed future metabolomic studies, aiming to investigate the actual metabolic pathways characterizing C. trachomatis genital infection in the cervicovaginal microenvironment.

Chlamydia transmitting from the genital to gastrointestinal tract and inducing tubal disease: Double attack pattern.

Chlamydia trachomatis ( CT ) genital tract infection is insidious, and patients often have no conscious symptoms.Delayed treatment after infection can lead to serious complications. Chlamydia muridarum ( CM ) genital tract infection in female mice can simulate CT genital tract infection in women, which is an ideal model to investigate the pathogenesis of CT . CM plasmid protein pGP3, chromosomal protein TC0237/TC0668, CM -specific CD8 + T cells, TNF-α, and IL-13 can induce genital tract inflammation, CD4 + T cells are responsible for CM clearance. However, tubal inflammation persists after genital tract CM is removed. Genital tract CM can spread spontaneously in vivo and colonize the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, but the GI tract CM cannot reverse spread to the genital tract. The survival time and number of CM transmitted from genital tract to GI tract are positively correlated with the long-term lesion of oviduct, while the CM inoculated directly into the GI tract has no pathogenicity in both the genital and GI tract. The double attack pattern of Chlamydia -induced genital tract inflammatory lesions is as follows: CM infection of oviduct epithelial cells initiates the process of oviduct repair as the first attack. After genital CM spreads to the GI tract, activated chlamydia-specific CD8 + T cells are recruited to the genital tract and secreted pro-fibrotic cytokines such as TNF-α and IL-13. This process is called the second attack which transform tubal repair initiated by the first attack into long-term tubal fibrosis/hydrosalpinx. Elucidating the pathogenic mechanism of Chlamydia infection can provide new ideas for the development of Chlamydia vaccine, which is expected to solve the problems of infertility caused by repeated CT infection in women.

MicroRNAs modulate Chlamydia trachomatis infection- and vaccine-induced immunity in macrophages

Abstract Recent studies indicate that microRNAs (miRNAs), including immune cell type-specific miRNAs modulate inflammation and immune response to Chlamydia trachomatis (CT) genital infection. However, the role of these miRNAs in modulation of immune cell function following CT infection or vaccine stimulation has not been investigated. We hypothesized that pretreatment of CT-infected and vaccine-stimulated macrophages with miRNA mimics or inhibitors will modulate secretion of inflammatory cytokines and expression of IFN-γ pathway-related genes. Thus, THP-1-differentiated macrophages (TDM) transfected with miRNA mimics or inhibitors were infected with CT or stimulated with a Vibrio cholerae ghost (rVCG)-based vaccine (rVCG-MECA) and the level of inflammatory cytokines secreted in culture supernatants was assessed by cytokine ELISA. Also, TDM expression of IFN-γ pathway-related genes was assessed by RT-qPCR. The results show that CT infection of TDM resulted in the downregulation of miR-15a, miR-29a, miR-146a and miR-222 while stimulation with rVCG-MECA resulted in their upregulation, as we previously reported. The level of TNF-α, IL-8, IL-1β and IFN-γ secreted by miRNA mimic- or inhibitor-treated TDM following infection or vaccine stimulation was dependent on the miRNA type. Furthermore, CT infection of untreated macrophages increased mRNA expression of INFGR1, JAK2, STAT1 and SOCS1. However, pretreatment of CT-infected cells with miR-146a mimic or inhibitor showed significantly decreased expression of these genes. The study demonstrated that miRNAs differentially modulate macrophage secretion of inflammatory cytokines and expression of IFN-γ pathway-related genes following CT infection or vaccine stimulation. Supported by None.

Decomposition of variation of mixed variables by a latent mixed Gaussian copula model.

Many biomedical studies collect data of mixed types of variables from multiple groups of subjects. Some of these studies aim to find the group-specific and the common variation among all these variables. Even though similar problems have been studied by some previous works, their methods mainly rely on the Pearson correlation, which cannot handle mixed data. To address this issue, we propose a latent mixed Gaussian copula (LMGC) model that can quantify the correlations among binary, ordinal, continuous, and truncated variables in a unified framework. We also provide a tool to decompose the variation into the group-specific and the common variation over multiple groups via solving a regularized M-estimation problem. We conduct extensive simulation studies to show the advantage of our proposed method over the Pearson correlation-based methods. We also demonstrate that by jointly solving the M-estimation problem over multiple groups, our method is better than decomposing the variation group by group. We also apply our method to a Chlamydia trachomatis genital tract infection study to demonstrate how it can be used to discover informative biomarkers that differentiatepatients.

Antimicrobial Resistance for Chlamydia Trachomatis Genital Infection during Pregnancy in Japan.

The current study examined the antimicrobial resistance of Chlamydia trachomatis (CT) genital infection during pregnancy in Japan. We requested 2,146 obstetrical facilities that are members of Japan Association of Obstetricians and Gynecologists to provide information of CT screening tests and antimicrobial resistance in pregnant women between April 2020 and March 2021. The prevalence of CT genital infection in Japan was 2.1%. The antimicrobial resistance was recognized in 2.0 and 2.4% of the cases using azithromycin and clarithromycin, respectively. There were no significant differences in the antimicrobial resistance rate between the 2 analogues (P = 0.28). In Japan, azithromycin and clarithromycin have effectively treated genital CT infections during pregnancy.

Association between Human Papillomavirus and Chlamydia trachomatis genital infections in male partners of infertile couples

The prevalence of HPV infection and its relationship with other sexually transmitted infections was analyzed in a cohort of 117 male partners of infertile couples from Cordoba, Argentina. Semen samples and urethral swabs were obtained and the infection with HPV, Chlamydia trachomatis, HSV1, HSV2, Mycoplasma hominis and Ureaplasma urealyticum was analyzed. A prevalence of HPV infection of 27.4% was found. Interestingly, infections by exclusively low risk HPV genotypes or high/intermediate risk HPV genotypes were present in 64.5% and 22.6% of cases, respectively. Low risk-HPV6 was the most frequently detected genotype. Remarkably, HPV and C. trachomatis infections were significantly associated to each other (OR: 11.55, 95% CI 1.14–117.06). No significant differences in sperm quality were found between HPV-positive and HPV-negative patients indicating that HPV male urogenital infection does not impair sperm quality. Our results show a high prevalence of HPV urogenital infection among male partners of infertile couples, and that HPV and C. trachomatis infections are reciprocal risk factors of their co-infection. Moreover, our results suggest that men constitute a reservoir for continued transmission of C. trachomatis and HPV to women highlighting the need for routine screening for these two pathogens in male partners of infertile couples.

Is There a Hidden Burden of Disease as a Result of Epigenetic Epithelial-to-Mesenchymal Transition Following Chlamydia trachomatis Genital Tract Infection?

Chlamydia trachomatis (CT), the most common bacterial sexually transmitted infection worldwide, has been widely researched for its involvement in many disease pathologies in the reproductive tract, including pelvic inflammatory disease, ectopic pregnancy, and tubal factor infertility. Recent findings, through the efforts to understand the pathogenesis of CT, suggest that CT can induce the process of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) through epigenetic changes in the epithelium of the female reproductive tract. This literature review aims to analyze the evidence for CT's ability to promote EMT and to pinpoint the areas that merit further investigation.

A primary Chlamydia trachomatis genital infection of rhesus macaques identifies new immunodominant B-cell antigens.

To identify immunodominant antigens that elicit a humoral immune response following a primary and a secondary genital infection, rhesus monkeys were inoculated cervically with Chlamydia trachomatis serovar D. Serum samples were collected and probed with a protein microarray expressing 864/894 (96.4%) of the open reading frames of the C. trachomatis serovar D genome. The antibody response to the primary infection was analyzed in 72 serum samples from 12 inoculated monkeys. The following criteria were utilized to identify immunodominant antigens: proteins found to be recognized by at least 75% (9/12) of the infected monkeys with at least 15% elevations in signal intensity from week 0 to week 8 post infection. All infected monkeys developed Chlamydia specific serum antibodies. Eight proteins satisfied the selection criteria for immunodominant antigens: CT242 (OmpH-like protein), CT541 (mip), CT681 (ompA), CT381 (artJ), CT443 (omcB), CT119 (incA), CT486 (fliY), and CT110 (groEL). Of these, three antigens, CT119, CT486 and CT381, were not previously identified as immunodominant antigens using non-human primate sera. Following the secondary infection, the antibody responses to the eight immunodominant antigens were analyzed and found to be quite different in intensity and duration to the primary infection. In conclusion, these eight immunodominant antigens can now be tested for their ability to identify individuals with a primary C. trachomatis genital infection and to design vaccine strategies to protect against a primary infection with this pathogen.

Active Hexose-Correlated Compound Restores Gene Expression and Protein Secretion of Protective Cytokines of Immune Cells in a Murine Stress Model during Chlamydia muridarum Genital Infection.

Chlamydia trachomatis genital infection is the most common bacterial sexually transmitted disease worldwide. Previously, we reported that cold-induced stress results in immune suppression of mice that subsequently leads to increased intensity of Chlamydia muridarum genital infection. Furthermore, we demonstrated that stressed mice orally fed with active hexose-correlated compound (AHCC) have reduced shedding of C. muridarum from the genital tract. However, the mechanism of AHCC in reducing the organ load and changing the immune response in the stress model is not well known. This study evaluated infection and changes in immunological parameters of stressed AHCC-fed mice with or without C. muridarum genital infection. We hypothesized that AHCC feeding to stressed mice restores protective immune function and reduces susceptibility to C. muridarum genital infection. The results show that oral feeding of stressed mice with AHCC resulted in decreased shedding of C. muridarum from the genital tract, reduced production of plasma catecholamines, increased expression of T-bet and reduced GATA-3 in CD4+ T cells, increased production of interleukin-12 (IL-12) and interferon gamma (IFN-γ) and reduced production of IL-4 in CD4+ T cells, and enhanced expression of surface markers and costimulatory molecules of CD4+ T cells, bone marrow-derived dendritic cells (BMDCs), and natural killer cells. Coculturing of mature BMDCs with splenic CD4+ T cells led to the increased and decreased production of T helper 1 and T helper 2 cytokines, respectively. Overall, our results show that AHCC fosters the restoration of Th1 cytokine production while reducing Th2 cytokine production, which would promote C. muridarum clearance in the murine stress model.

Is there an association between Chlamydia trachomatis load and in situ expression of cyclooxygenase/inflammatory cytokines in first trimester aborters

Background: Colonization of Chlamydia trachomatis genital tract infection during pregnancy is associated with adverse obstetric outcomes in women; however, despite clear association between C. trachomatis and spontaneous abortion (SA), study on C. trachomatis load in first trimester abortion remains meagre. The reported occurrence of sporadic/recurrent SA (SSA/RSA) in C. trachomatis-positive women emphasize the need to identify chlamydial load and possible immunomolecular pathway in early SSA/RSA. The study aims to find whether there is association between C. trachomatis load and in situ expression of cyclooxygenase (cox)-2/pro-inflammatory cytokines in C. trachomatis-positive SSA/RSA. Methods and materials: 150 women experiencing SA, viz.: SSA (n = 70) and RSA (n = 80) during first trimester were enrolled from Gynecology Receiving Room (GRR), Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Safdarjung hospital, New Delhi (India) after obtaining hospital ethical permission and prior informed written consent from each patient. Endometrial curettage tissue (ECT) was collected for detection of C. trachomatis load and in situ expression of cox-2 and pro-inflammatory cytokines, viz.: IFN-γ/TGF-b1 in each patient by quantitative real time (qRT) PCR. Data was statistically analyzed. Results: C. trachomatis plasmid gene (200 bp) was found in 12.8% and 15% of SSA and RSA respectively; while 1–4/4–12 copies of C. trachomatis were detected in SSA/RSA respectively. Significant upregulation of cox-2/IFN-γ/TGF-b1 gene was found in C. trachomatis-positive RSA versus SSA (‘p’ < 0.0001). After controlling for confounding variables, linear regression analysis showed that C. trachomatis copy load in SSA/RSA was significantly associated with cox-2/IFN-γ/TGF-b1. Significant positive correlation was observed between C. trachomatis copy load and cox-2/IFN-γ/TGF-b1 gene (‘p’ < 0.0001) in SSA/RSA. Conclusion: Findings delineated that C. trachomatis load during early pregnancy is clearly associated with elevated cytokines and cox-2 in SSA/RSA, thereby accelerating endometrial contractions and ultimately resulting in SA. Hence, it is suggested that investigation of C. trachomatis load in SSA/RSA should be undertaken in first trimester of pregnancy for better clinical management of SA.

Intranasal vaccination with a Chimeric Chlamydial Antigen BD584 confers protection against Chlamydia trachomatis genital tract infection

<em>Chlamydia</em> is the most common sexually transmitted infection of bacterial origin, and a broadly protective vaccine is urgently needed given the largely asymptomatic nature of the infection and the severe reproductive sequelae in women with untreated infections.

Chlamydia trachomatis elicits TLR3 expression but disrupts the inflammatory signaling down-modulating NFκB and IRF3 transcription factors in human Sertoli cells.

Chlamydia trachomatis, the leading cause of bacterial sexually transmitted diseases worldwide, can disseminate and localize to the upper genital tract impairing reproductive function. Specifically, ascending C. trachomatis genital infection has been demonstrated to cause epididymitis or epididymo-orchitis, well-known risk factors for male infertility. C. trachomatis possesses the ability to infect primary human Sertoli cells, key elements for the spermatogenetic process and the immune protection of germ cells. Therefore, herein, we investigated the innate immune response in Sertoli cells following C. trachomatis infection, as well as its indirect effects on human spermatozoa. Specifically, we evaluated C. trachomatis mediated induction of Toll-like Receptors (TLR) 2, 3 and 4 as well as of downstream intracellular signaling molecules (NFκB and IRF3) and the levels of the related inflammatory mediators (IL-1α, IL-6, IFN-α, IFN-β and IFN-γ), in an in vitro infection model of primary human Sertoli cells. The main result of our study shows that C. trachomatis induced TLR3-mediated recognition in human Sertoli cells, accompanied by the down-modulation of NFκB and IRF3-dependent signaling pathways followed by no production of pro-inflammatory cytokines. In conclusion, our findings suggest that C. trachomatis can disrupt the innate immune response in Sertoli cells and evade intracellular killing, potentially giving rise to a long-term infection that may exert negative effects on the male reproductive system.

Selected Immunological Mediators and Cervical Microbial Signatures in Women with Chlamydia trachomatis Infection.

In the female genital ecosystem, the complex interplay between the host immune system and the resident microflora protects against urogenital pathogens, like Chlamydia trachomatis C. trachomatis is responsible for urethritis and cervicitis; however, most chlamydial infections are asymptomatic and, thus, not treated, potentially leading to severe reproductive sequelae. Here we investigated the interaction between the levels of selected immune mediators and the community state types of the cervical microbiota in C. trachomatis-infected women. Cervical samples from 42 C. trachomatis-positive women and 103 matched healthy controls were analyzed through the metagenomic analysis of the hypervariable region v4 of the 16S rRNA gene and the determination of lactoferrin, interleukin 1α (IL-1α), IL-6, alpha interferon (IFN-α), IFN-β, and IFN-γ by ELISA. Overall, C. trachomatis infection was significantly associated with a microbiota dominated by anaerobic bacteria (P = 0.000002). In addition, a network of Gardnerella vaginalis, Prevotella amnii, Prevotella buccalis, Prevotella timonensis, Aerococcus christensenii, and Variovorax guangxiensis has been identified as a potential biomarker of C. trachomatis infection through multiple statistical approaches. Again, chlamydial infection was significantly correlated with an increased production of lactoferrin, IL-6, IL-1α, IFN-α, and IFN-β (P < 0.05), whereas very low levels of IFN-γ were observed in C. trachomatis-infected women, levels similar to those detected in healthy women. Our findings show a distinctive signature of C. trachomatis genital infection, characterized by a specific bacterial network, constituted by anaerobes, as well as by increased levels of lactoferrin and proinflammatory cytokines (IL-1α, IL-6, IFN-α, and IFN-β), accompanied by low levels of IFN-γ.IMPORTANCE To our knowledge, this is the first study that investigated the association of C. trachomatis with the cervical levels of lactoferrin and selected inflammatory mediators and their correlation with the different community state types characterizing the female genital ecosystem. C. trachomatis, known as the leading cause of bacterial sexually transmitted diseases, continues to be an important public health problem worldwide for its increasing incidence and the risk of developing severe reproductive sequelae, like pelvic inflammatory disease and infertility. Specifically, C. trachomatis tend to persist in the female genital tract, leading to a chronic inflammatory state characterized by increased production of immune mediators responsible for tissue damage. Therefore, our study may help to broaden the knowledge on the complex interplay between the female genital microbiota and the host immune system in response to C. trachomatis infection.

Incidence of Chlamydia trachomatis and Trichomonas Vaginalis Genital Infections among Non-Pregnant Women in Al - Najaf Province

Background: Trichomonas vaginalis infections are greatly connected with the Existence of other STIs (gonorrhea, chlamydia, and Human Immunodeficiency Virus). Aims of study: To investigate the infection rate of Chlamydia trachomatis and Trichomonas vaginalis in women who attended to Al-Zahraa Hospital for Maternity and Children in Al- Najaf city. Methods: A cross-sectional study conducted on 86 women was attended to Al-Zahraa Hospital for Maternity and Children in Al- Najaf city at period between Aprils to September 2018. Cervical samples were taken from women suffering from cervicitis or cervical erosion to detect the Chlamydia trachomatis and Trichomonas vaginalis. Results: the results show there was 50 positive samples with Chlamydia trachomatis (58.2%) and 36 sample negative (41.8%) and showed there was 24 positive samples with Trichomonas vaginalis (27.9) % and negative was 62 (72.1) % with significant difference (P ≤ 0.05) between positive and negative patients. There was no associated between these microorganisms and use contraceptive or none, mode of delivery and time of the menstrual cycle. Conclusion: This study concludes high percentage of Chlamydia trachomatis with intermediate percentage of Trichomonas vaginalis among women in Al- Najaf city. No significant effect between these organisms and the variables in this study may be indicate the ability of them to spread in any case and required the accurately diagnosed and treated. Recommendation: As a result, the present study recommends the epidemiological study of migratory diseases periodically and increasing the awareness procedures for the damage of these diseases and their risks.

Prevalence and risk factors of Chlamydia trachomatis genital infection among military personnel of the Armed Forces of Serbia: A cross-sectional study

Background/Aim. Chlamydia trachomatis infection (CTI) is an increasing public health problem worldwide and is the most frequent sexually transmitted infection. Studies conducted in many armed forces worldwide showed that CTI is common within military population and generate significant healthcare costs. The aim of this study was to estimate the prevalence of CTI among members of the Serbian Armed Forces (SAF) and to determine risk factors for this infection. Methods. The study was designed as a cross-sectional survey and consisted of completing a questionnaire and chlamydial testing. The questionnaire was divided into two question groups: one was about demographic/service related characteristics and the other was about behavioral patterns/ habits. Chlamydia trachomatis real time polymerase chain reaction (Real-TM PCR) was used for detection of pathogen genome specific sequence in the male urethral swabs and in the female endocervical swabs. All data collected were used to compare military personnel with and without CTI. Risk factors independently associated with CTI were identified by the stepwise multivariate logistic regression analysis (MLRA) of variables selected by the univariate logistic regression analysis (ULRA), with a limit for entering and removing variables from the model at 0.05. Results. The overall prevalence of CTI was 55 of 356 respondents (15.4%; 95% CI 0.5?2.7%). The ULRA identified that CTI was significantly associated with several characteristics: number of sexual partners during previous year (p = 0.008), knowledge about symptoms of CTI (p = 0.035), tattooing (p = 0.035) and married or in stable relationship (p = 0.022). The MLRA revealed that number of different sexual partners during last year was independent risk factor of CTI (p = 0.026; OR : 0.344; 95% CI: 0.13?0.88). Conclusion. CTI is significant problem in male and female military personnel in the SAF. The number of different sexual partners during previous year was independently associated with CTI. These finding indicates that screening for CTI should be undertaken in the SAF, to reduce rates of CTI in the SAF and to prevent morbidity due to this infection.